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This paper identifies an "education through science" philosophy for school science teaching at the secondary level and determines its interrelationship with approaches to student acquisition of key educational competences and the identification of teacher needs to promote meaningful learning during science lessons. Based on the philosophy, factors identified as integral to the PROFILES project (PROFILES, 2010) and aspects related to the teaching approach, the paper sets out to put forward areas of potential teacher professional need and plan for an effective continuous development (CPD) programme to promote teacher's self-efficacy in undertaking teaching through "education through science," as advocated in PROFILES. From a breakdown of desired students' learning and components related to teacher self-efficacy, the professional needs of teachers are identified by means of a validated Teacher Needs Questionnaire (TNQ), covering identified pedagogical content knowledge and philosophical expectations, together with follow-up interviews with selected teachers. The TNQ/interview outcomes were analysed and used to develop a continuous professional development programme for teachers. Findings show that teacher competences needs were mainly focused on educational theories, assessment, inquiry-based learning and self-reflection, while their self-identified, perceived need for professional development was much wider and support in all potential components were requested. The wide request from teachers made the planning of the CPD more difficult but the various components were interlinked with the competence requirements in the developed CPD programme.

Primary school students have difficulties with text comprehension, and therefore support from teachers via proper language teaching strategies is needed. The aim of the study was to determine the impact of language teaching strategies on students' reading outcomes and reading interest. In the current paper, two reading outcomes--vocabulary knowledge and understanding text--and students' interest in reading were considered. In the study, 220 Estonian-speaking primary school students and their native language teachers (N = 12) from 12 schools participated. The results revealed that interest in reading, vocabulary knowledge and text comprehension were positively correlated. Path analysis indicated that the strategy of developing reading interest had the strongest impact on both reading outcomes and students' reading interest. In addition, the strategy of developing vocabulary had a positive effect on students' vocabulary knowledge. Surprisingly, the strategies of teaching text comprehension and teaching grammar rules had negative effects on students' reading outcomes and reading interest. The findings emphasise the importance of proper usage of teaching strategies in primary school language lessons.

Purpose: This paper aims to measure the organizational learning in two of Estonia's Higher Education Institutions (HEI) and identify connections between the organizational learning and various characteristics of HEI, such as ownership form and market participation rate. Design/methodology/approach: Watkins and Marsick's learning organization questionnaire, the Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ), as one of the most popular organizational learning measurement instruments, was taken to measure the organizational learning of HEIs. Employees from a total of two Estonian HEIs, which differ in several characteristics, completed the Watkins and Marsick's questionnaire. To identify the dependence of organizational learning on two observed HEIs' characteristics, the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis method was used. The analysis was performed at the DLOQ dimensions level. Findings: The average organizational learning rate of the two universities under study was over average (3.72 on six-point Likert scale) which allows arguing that both observed institutions are learning organizations. The organizational learning rate based on samples of employees from two HEI-s depends on the institution's market participation on the 90 per cent level in the first dimension, 95 per cent in the second dimension and 90 per cent in the sixth dimension. Correlation between the HEI ownership form and any of the DLOQ dimensions is weak. Research limitations/implications: The study is based on two universities. The sample size is insufficient; therefore, the results cannot be generalized to HEIs as a whole. Originality/value: The relationship between higher education institutions' organizational learning and higher education institutions' characteristics has not been investigated before. The results of this paper allow a better focus on different aspects of organizational learning in HEIs' development and relate to their specific development needs.

Aim: The aim of this study is to describe and evaluate how nurses caring for COVID and non‐COVID patients assess changes in their work and in nursing activities during the two waves of the COVID‐19 pandemic. Methods: Two cross‐sectional surveys were conducted for Estonian nurses working during the first and second waves of the COVID‐19 pandemic, using The impact of COVID‐19 emergency on nursing care questionnaire. Based on convenience sampling, the data were collected among the members of professional organizations, unions and associations. Responses from the first (n = 162) and second wave (n = 284) were analysed using descriptive statistics, Fisher's exact test and McNemar's test. Results: The COVID‐19 pandemic changed the working context during both waves for nurses caring for COVID and non‐COVID patients. Changes were considered to a greater extent during the second wave, when Estonia was severely affected, and by nurses caring for COVID patients. During the second wave, the number and complexity of patients increased, and nurses caring for COVID patients performed fundamental care, nursing techniques and symptom control significantly more frequently compared to nurses caring for non‐COVID patients. Conclusion: Taking care of COVID patients is demanding, requiring nurses to perform more direct patient care. However, the pandemic also increased the frequency of activities not related with direct patient care. Summary statement: What is already known about this topic? The COVID‐19 pandemic has influenced the context of care and all dimensions of nurses' work.Despite increasing research on the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on nursing care, little attention has been given to differences between caring for COVID and non‐COVID patients during the different waves of the COVID‐19 pandemic. What this paper adds? Nursing care for COVID patients requires from nurses more direct patient care through fundamental care activities, nursing techniques and symptom control compared to non‐COVID patients.The impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on nurses' work reflects the severity and progress of different waves of the pandemic, which needs to be considered in preparing for future pandemics.Nursing care during a pandemic may also lead to an extensive workload due to tasks not related to direct patient care as nurses contribute to the management of the pandemic on all levels of health care. The implications of this paper: The COVID‐19 pandemic has had a significant impact on nursing, where the mitigation of long‐term effects of the pandemic is still ongoing, and thus, knowledge about the details of the resulting changes is required.Study findings enable us to mitigate the impact of the pandemic on nurses and to highlight aspects that need to be taken into account when preparing for future pandemics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development visions of universities, the growing heterogeneity of learners at all levels and changes in higher education are increasing expectations of academics' professionalism and their teaching practices. Learning experiences and teaching practices at university influence further choices and support continuing lifelong learning of university students. This paper presents research results from an empirical survey carried out at Tallinn University in Estonia. It investigates how students experience teaching and teaching practices and how academics experience their own teaching. Within a theoretical framework of adult learning principles, the emphasis is on the importance of and interrelations between teaching practices and the student learning process at university. Relevant data were collected from 235 students, who were asked to fill in a semi-structured questionnaire, and from 9 academic staff members, who were asked to submit reflection papers. The students and the academics in the sample came from three different disciplines: (1) mathematics/natural sciences; (2) educational sciences/teacher education; and (3) social sciences. The empirical data thus gathered were then analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The authors' findings indicate that while students experience current teaching practices as somewhat limited to a one-sided passing on of knowledge to learners, academic staff perceive their teaching as a collaborative process which helps their students' development. This discrepancy creates tension and thus calls for change.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to study Bayesian dependency modelling (BDM) to validate the model of educational experiences and the student-customer orientation questionnaire (SCOQ), and to identify the categories of educatonal experience in which students expect a higher educational institutions (HEI) to be student-customer oriented. Design/methodology/approach: This paper employs a cross-sectional quantitative survey study, mixed methods research, exploratory factor analysis and BDM. Findings: The validated model of educational experiences and the SCOQ; results indicate that students expect to be treated as customers in some, but not all categories of educational experience. Research limitations/implications: The authors contribute to existing literature on two fronts: the validated model of educational experiences and the categories of educational experience in which students expect to be treated as customers. Practical implications: The validated SCOQ presented in the paper may be used by other HEIs to assess the degree to which students expect a particular HEI to be customer oriented. Also, HEIs should assess students' expectations concerning student-customer orientation before employing such an approach. Originality/value: The paper presents a validated model of educational experiences and a SCOQ. Additionally, the study does not investigate whether students expect a HEI as such to be student-customer oriented (as most studies have done so far); instead, the aim is to find out whether, in which categories of educational experience and to what extent students expect a HEI to be student-customer oriented. Thus, the study explores the phenomenon of student-customer orientation at a deeper level, i.e. separately at the level of educational experiences.

The purpose of this paper is to explore attitudes towards learning and perceptions of the learning environment. Our theoretical examination is based on the social-cognitive theory of motivation and research that emphasizes the connections between an individual's perceptions of the learning environment and his/her motivation, interest, attitudes and confidence. Recent theories that deal with "powerful learning environments" (Fraser, 2002) stress that the teacher should not look only at the physical aspects of the environment in which learning takes place, but also at the learner's perceptions and beliefs. The importance of multiple aspects of learning environments will be stressed and some recommendations for improving the effectiveness of these environments will be given. Additionally, some theoretical concepts of learning environments will be reviewed. We will examine empirically the differences and correlations that occur in adult learners' motivation and attitudes due to their psycho-social and physical learning environment. An international comparison between various post-socialist countries has also been carried out.

Finding a balance between a centralised and decentralised curricular policy for general education and seeing teachers as autonomous agents of curriculum development is a recurrent issue in many countries. Radical reforms bring about the need to investigate whether and to what extent different parties - and first of all, teachers - are ready to accept and internalise the new policies and roles as curriculum leaders to ensure the sustainability of curriculum development. The purpose of this paper is to describe the development of a questionnaire for investigating Estonian teachers' curricular work and preferences and to introduce the results of its piloting. The main topics covered by the questionnaire are teachers' experience and autonomy in using and developing curricula, their preparation for curriculum development and preferences and expectations for the best curricular solutions. The developed questionnaire can be used for investigating teachers' curricular work and preferences in different national contexts, thus enabling comparative studies across countries with different practices regarding curriculum policy.

Various tools and services based on Web 2.0 (mainly blogs, wikis, social networking tools) are increasingly used in formal education to create personal learning environments, providing self-directed learners with more freedom, choice, and control over their learning. In such distributed and personalized learning environments, the traditional role of the teacher is being transformed into that of a facilitator. This change inevitably means a reduced level of control on the part of the teacher. This is evidenced, for example, in difficulties experienced in retaining the necessary levels of control when the learning process moves away from institutionally maintained systems to blog-based personal learning environments. In conducting a course in a formal education setting however, it is still essential for the teacher to retain control over certain learning activities, such as course enrolment, assignments, and the assessment process. A course management plug-in for the WordPress blog platform called "LePress" was designed and developed as a possible solution to this problem. By using LePress, teachers are able to more easily manage and coordinate courses in a distributed blog-based environment. Teachers are able to regain control over some important aspects of online course management, while maintaining the learners' freedom and choice for self-directed learning. This paper documents the results of a survey of a group of 37 teachers who used LePress for at least six months. The study demonstrates that by using LePress, teachers experienced an enhanced level of control over several aspects of the course and this reinforced their perception about the ease of use of the system.

This paper identifies and critiques literature on the experience of transition between primary and secondary school; how and why it is seen as critical and in what ways it can be supported. The aim of this literature review is to remind readers of this important period on the lives of young people and the diverse range of issues which they face. There is general consensus in the literature that well-designed and implemented transition approaches can assist in the process of supporting students, their families and school staff. Teachers are crucial in supporting children and young people moving in, between and out of school and making these transitions positive experiences. Therefore, pre-service teacher education needs to include awareness and understanding of the main issues in relation to transition. Teacher educators need to consider how they can incorporate transition programs and strategies in their courses to ensure that graduate teachers have the skills and knowledge to mediate some of the pressures that their students are facing when dealing with transitions. (Contains 1 figure.)

This paper focuses on the expansion of design-oriented pedagogy that encourages approaching global phenomena such as sustainable development from the perspective of local environments, cultures and associated ways of doing things. It aims to determine how project members and teachers from eight different European countries (n = 221) who had participated in the project "Case Forest--pedagogy towards sustainable development" experienced the pedagogical model and evaluated its usability from the perspectives of their own educational cultures. The main sources of both theory and data-driven qualitative content analysis are the reports obtained from each country and transcripts of the oral presentations and collaborative discussions. The results indicate that the teachers find current school practices, belief systems and traditional teaching models problematic and see the model as one way to change their schools' practices towards sustainable learning.

The paper presents the results of an empirical evaluation of a mathematical model of ethnolinguistic vitality. The model adds several new factors to the set used in previous models of ethnolinguistic vitality and operationalises it in a manner that would make it easier to compare the vitality of different groups. According to the model, the ethnolinguistic vitality (V) depends on the perceived cultural weight of one's own community (M[subscript 1]) in relation to the weight of a relevant other community (M[subscript 2]); perceived intergroup distance between the communities (r) and the extent of utilitarianism (U) in the community under investigation. The overall ethnolinguistic vitality can be expressed by a formula V = U(M[subscript 1] - M[subscript 2])/r: In this paper, the model is applied for evaluating the vitality of the Voro language, a minority language closely related to Estonian. The results are in concord with the results of previous studies about the language maintenance and shift in Voro. (Contains 9 tables.)

This paper presents the main results of a recent survey of private higher education institutions from twelve selected European countries (Austria, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Estonia, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Ukraine, Russia) [in the framework of the UNESCO-CEPES project on "Private Higher Education in Europe and Quality Assurance and Accreditation from the Perspectives of the Bologna process Objectives," designed and implemented in collaboration with "Leon Kozminski Academy of Entrepreneurship and Management (LKAEM) and the World Bank"]. After a brief review of the current incidence of private education in the selected European countries, the authors give a description of the survey. Then the main findings are structured according to the nine goals of the Bologna Process and their corresponding level of implementation in private higher education institutions, and also to provide comparisons with public higher education institutions. The paper concludes with a discussion of the results and with some general remarks about the role of private higher education institutions in building the EHEA. (Contains 14 tables, 12 footnotes and 3 figures.)

The paper presents the initial results of research into the individual conditions of the psychosocial functioning of NEETs in the educational context. The study was performed between May and September 2017 in Slovakia, Poland and Estonia, by means of a triangulation of quantitative tools. The general objective of the study is to diagnose the level of critical thinking (Cornell Critical Thinking), reasoning (T.I.P.), problem-solving strategies (NCS) and individual development assessment (IDEA) in a group of NEETs, and to compare these variables with one another and with socio-demographic characteristics. Based on an initial analysis of the results (100 individuals from each country were invited to participate in the survey; 235 questionnaires were gathered), we can see that the group analysed presents a relatively high level of critical thinking and reasoning (intelligence indicator) and an average level of problem-solving attitude. Breaking stereotypes about NEETs, the study fits into the critical paradigm of andragogical research. The results served as the foundation for a series of postulates regarding educational programmes based on andragogical assumptions.

In this paper an analysis is carried out whether objective tests and subjective self-assessments in international large-scale studies yield similar results when looking at cross-national differences in the effects of skills on earnings, and skills patterns across countries, fields of study and gender. The findings indicate that subjective skills measures do not correlate well with objective measures of similar constructs when looking at cross-national differences. Countrywise associations between subjective skills measures and earnings do not correlate well with those found using objective skills measures. Moreover, cross-national differences in the level of subjective skills measures do not correlate well with cross-national differences in skill levels based on objective tests. Nor do gender differences found using subjective skills measures correlate with those found using objective skills measures. This does not mean that self-assessments cannot be used, but they need to be restricted to analysing within-country differences. Within countries, self-assessments do a good job in predicting skills differences across fields of study and also in predicting the effect of skills on earnings. When comparing gender differences in skills levels within countries, however, one needs to be aware that females tend to overestimate their skills levels in typical "female" domains like literacy.

Policy-makers making decisions on the implementation of school-based sexuality education (SE) programmes face two important questions: (1) what are the costs of implementing and scaling up SE programmes, and (2) what are the impacts? This paper responds to these questions by retrospectively assessing costs, impact and cost-effectiveness of the national school-based SE programme in Estonia 1997-2009. The three-year curriculum had been taught to 190,000 students at the end of 2009. The cost of reaching one student was USD 32.90 and the total costs were USD 5.6 million. There has been a remarkable improvement in sexual health indicators in the age groups 15-19 and 20-24 years in Estonia between 2001 and 2009. During this period, annual abortions, STIs and diagnosed HIV infections in the age groups were reduced by 37%, 55% and 89%, respectively. It is difficult to assess to what extent the improvements in these sexual health indicators are attributable to the SE programme. Nevertheless, our conservative threshold analysis indicates that the Estonian SE programme could be considered cost-saving if only 4% of the observed reductions in HIV infections are attributable to the programme. There is strong evidence, therefore, to support that the Estonian school-based sexuality programme has been cost-effective.

Purpose: This paper aims to present the baseline results of a research and development project targeted to improve the occupational well-being of school staff and maintain their ability to work, in Finland and Estonia. It reveals the most problematic factors in the various aspects of the school community and professional competence and outlines development needs in the school communities. Design/methodology/approach: The overall project design is action research, conducted during 2009-2013 in the SHE (Schools for Health in Europe) network in Finland and Estonia. The baseline survey data were collected in 2009-2010 with a web-based Well-being at your work index questionnaire and analysed statistically using descriptive statistics, sum variables of factors and Mann-Whitney tests. Findings: The general opinions of the Finnish school staffs were more affirmative than those of Estonian school staffs regarding their own personal occupational well-being in comparison with the best in the profession (p=0.000). However, the Finns were more critical than the Estonians when estimating the general well-being of the staff in their working community, maintenance of their ability to work, the aspects of the school community and professional competence and development needs in the school communities. Research limitations/implications: The results cannot be widely generalised due to the geographically defined samples, but they can be suggestive in comparable situations in Finland and Estonia. Originality/value: There is a need to develop the occupational well-being of school staff and maintenance of their ability to work in the school communities: specific interventions will be developed on the basis of the results obtained from the project schools. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.)

Subjective ethno-linguistic vitality expresses a group's perception of its own ability to act as a distinctive collective entity in intergroup encounters. Although subjective vitality questionnaires have proved to be reliable instruments of measurement, there has been criticism that they underestimate actual vitality (see Yagmur, this issue). A possible reason for this might be that there are other factors present that can potentially affect vitality. For example, high perceived inter-ethnic discordance may enhance group vitality by reducing the permeability of group boundaries and strengthening emotional attachment to the in-group due to identity threat. In our paper, we hypothesise that the higher the perceived discordance, the higher the subjective vitality perceptions. To measure inter-ethnic discordance, a questionnaire was developed consisting of two interrelated factors: legitimacy of intergroup situation and perceived intergroup attitudes. A large-scale survey (N=460) of representatives of the Russian-speaking community in Estonia was conducted, focusing on both the discordance and subjective vitality phenomena. Contrary to the predictions, there was a negative correlation between the discordance factor and subjective vitality perception. The implications of this finding for the notion of subjective vitality are discussed. (Contains 1 note and 7 tables.)

Purpose This paper aims to measure the organizational learning in two of Estonia’s Higher Education Institutions (HEI) and identify connections between the organizational learning and various characteristics of HEI, such as ownership form and market participation rate.Design/methodology/approach Watkins and Marsick’s learning organization questionnaire, the Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ), as one of the most popular organizational learning measurement instruments, was taken to measure the organizational learning of HEIs. Employees from a total of two Estonian HEIs, which differ in several characteristics, completed the Watkins and Marsick’s questionnaire. To identify the dependence of organizational learning on two observed HEIs’ characteristics, the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis method was used. The analysis was performed at the DLOQ dimensions level.Findings The average organizational learning rate of the two universities under study was over average (3.72 on six-point Likert scale) which allows arguing that both observed institutions are learning organizations. The organizational learning rate based on samples of employees from two HEI-s depends on the institution`s market participation on the 90 per cent level in the first dimension, 95 per cent in the second dimension and 90 per cent in the sixth dimension. Correlation between the HEI ownership form and any of the DLOQ dimensions is weak.Research limitations/implications The study is based on two universities. The sample size is insufficient; therefore, the results cannot be generalized to HEIs as a whole.Originality/value The relationship between higher education institutions’ organizational learning and higher education institutions’ characteristics has not been investigated before. The results of this paper allow a better focus on different aspects of organizational learning in HEIs’ development and relate to their specific development needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assist higher education institutions in meeting the challenge of limited student engagement in the implementation of Learning Analytics services, the Questionnaire for Student Expectations of Learning Analytics (SELAQ) was developed. This instrument contains 12 items, which are explained by a purported two‐factor structure of "Ethical and Privacy Expectations" and "Service Feature Expectations." As it stands, however, the SELAQ has only been validated with students from UK university, which is problematic on account of the interest in Learning Analytics extending beyond this context. Thus, the aim of the current work was to assess whether the translated SELAQ can be validated in three contexts (an Estonian, a Spanish, and a Dutch University). The findings show that the model provided acceptable fits in both the Spanish and Dutch samples, but was not supported in the Estonian student sample. In addition, an assessment of local fit is undertaken for each sample, which provides important points that need to be considered in future work. Finally, a general comparison of expectations across contexts is undertaken, which are discussed in relation to the General Data Protection Regulation (2018). Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Accounting for student expectations allows for a service that is meaningful.SELAQ measures student expectations towards Learning Analytics services.The 12 items of the SELAQ can be explained by a two‐factor structure (Ethical and Privacy Expectations and Service Feature Expectations). What their paper adds to this: Validation of the SELAQ in three contextsA discussion of localized sources of strainAn assessment of measurement quality in each contextA general comparison of student expectations across contexts The implications of study findings for practitioners: SELAQ can be used with Spanish and Dutch students.SELAQ responses provide a much needed input from end‐users in Learning Analytics implementations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schwartz et al. (J Pers Soc Psychol 103(4): 663–688, 2012) recently proposed a refined theory that describes universal aspects in the content and the structure of human values. We propose a bi-factor model in order to model the common method variance (CMV) imposed by people's response styles, which has been ignored in previous tests for measurement invariance in the revised Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ-R). Four unique samples were used—two from Estonia ( N = 1954, 82% female, M age = 31.2 years, SD age = 13.2, online mode; N = 1309, 69% female, M age = 28.2 years, SD age = 9.6, paper-and-pencil mode), one from Finland ( N = 250, 80% female, M age = 24.6 years, SD age = 6.7), and one from Ethiopia ( N = 253, 26% female, M age = 21.8 years, SD age = 5.0)—allowing assessment of the cross-cultural measurement invariance of the value circle, as well as the effect of the increasingly common mixed-mode data collection method. After taking CMV into account, the refined value structure holds relatively well in the Estonian and Finnish samples, but not in the Ethiopian context. PVQ-R data collected through paper-and-pencil and online modes can be combined, while there exist small limitations for the comparison of relationships and latent means across Estonian and Finnish samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy-makers making decisions on the implementation of school-based sexuality education (SE) programmes face two important questions: (1) what are the costs of implementing and scaling up SE programmes, and (2) what are the impacts? This paper responds to these questions by retrospectively assessing costs, impact and cost-effectiveness of the national school-based SE programme in Estonia 1997–2009. The three-year curriculum had been taught to 190,000 students at the end of 2009. The cost of reaching one student was USD 32.90 and the total costs were USD 5.6 million. There has been a remarkable improvement in sexual health indicators in the age groups 15–19 and 20–24 years in Estonia between 2001 and 2009. During this period, annual abortions, STIs and diagnosed HIV infections in the age groups were reduced by 37%, 55% and 89%, respectively. It is difficult to assess to what extent the improvements in these sexual health indicators are attributable to the SE programme. Nevertheless, our conservative threshold analysis indicates that the Estonian SE programme could be considered cost-saving if only 4% of the observed reductions in HIV infections are attributable to the programme. There is strong evidence, therefore, to support that the Estonian school-based sexuality programme has been cost-effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societal changes involving power reversal may pose challenges to system justification by a subordinate minority group that had previously held a more privileged position. Derived from originally exploratory qualitative investigation, this paper presents an account of endorsement of justifying the status quo versus the voicing relative deprivation in the context of post-Soviet Estonia. Experiences of alternative societal arrangements in history were actively deployed by (minority ethnic) Estonian Russians to generate temporal comparisons with the past as a cognitive alternative to the present status quo and give voice to experiences of relative deprivation. A struggle for positive social identity was interpreted to motivate Estonian Russians to mobilize the past as a cognitive alternative to delegitimize the status quo. By contrast, Russians were portrayed as invaders, and the Soviet past was represented as unjust by (the majority ethnic) Estonians, whereas the present system was depicted as fair and equitable. Mutually, polemical representations of history and narratives of identity provide the lenses through which the legitimacy of new societal arrangements following the major social change is interpreted. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Subjective Well-Being Under Neuroleptic Treatment Scale short form (SWN-K) is a self-rating scale developed to measure mentally ill patients' well-being under the antipsychotic drug treatment. This paper reports on adaptation and psychometric properties of the instrument in an Estonian psychiatric sample. Methods: In a naturalistic study design, 124 inpatients or outpatients suffering from the first psychotic episode or chronic psychotic illness completed the translated SWN-K instrument. Item content analysis, internal consistency analysis, exploratory principal components analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis were used to construct the Estonian version of the SWN-K (SWN-K-E). Additionally, socio-demographic and clinical data, observer-rated psychopathology, medication side effects, daily antipsychotic drug dosages, and general functioning were assessed at two time points, at baseline and after a 29-week period; the associations of the SWN-K-E scores with these variables were explored. Results: After having selected 20 items for the Estonian adaptation, the internal consistency of the total SWN-K-E was 0.93 and the subscale consistencies ranged from 0.70 to 0.80. Good test-retest reliabilities were observed for the adapted scale scores, with the correlation of the total score over about 6 months being r = 0.70. Confirmatory factor analysis replicated the presence of a higher-order factor (general well-being) and five first-order factors (mental functioning, physical functioning, social integration, emotional regulation, and self-control); the model fitted the data well. The results indicated a moderate-high correlations r = 0.54 between the SWN-K-E total score and the evaluation how satisfied patients were with their lives in generally. No significant correlations were found between the overall subjective well-being score and age, severity of the psychopathology, drug adverse effects, or prescribed drug dosage. Conclusion: Taken together, the results demonstrated that the Estonian version of the SWN-K is a reliable and valid instrument with psychometric properties similar to the original English version. The potential uses of the scale in both research and clinical settings are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Traditional use of local wild and cultivated plants for making recreational tea in Estonia often borders with the medicinal use of the same plants. Aim of the study: The aim of this paper is to map the perceptions of plants used for making tea and to define the domains of recreational and medicinal teas in specific cultural settings. Materials and methods: Between November 2011 and March 2012 the authors distributed electronic questionnaires on the use of wild food plants in childhood. The questionnaire was answered by 250 respondents. 178 of them reported the use of plants for making recreational teas. The responses were analysed according to the taxonomy of the used plants, the most frequently used taxa and families were detected, the influence of respondents' demographic data on the number of use reports was assessed and the overlapping of medicinal and recreational uses was discussed. Results: The study detected 69 vascular plant species, ten vascular taxa identified on the genera level only, and one lichen. The most popular families were Rosaceae, Asteraceae and Lamiacea, and 12 taxa were used by at least 10% of the respondents, while only one of them (Tilia) was used by more than 50% and one (Rubus idaeus) by over 33% of the respondents. The next ten most used taxa were: Rosa, Mentha, Primula veris, Matricaria, Achillea millefolium, Hypericum, Carum carvi, Urtica dioica, Thymus serpyllum and Fragaria. Of the 30 most used consolidated taxa mentioned in five or more use records, only four were used exclusively in one domain. Conclusions: The majority of the used plants were situated on the recreational-medicinal continuum, which could be divided into two domains: recreational, medicinal and the “grey” area that lies around the borderline. The predominance of the cold and cold-related diseases on the spectrum treated by plants used for making recreational tea reflects the climatic conditions of the region and suggests that they are the most commonly self-treated diseases in the region, seen from the child's perspective. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The severe impact of different forms of violence on health has been demonstrated in a substantial number of studies. At the same time, it has been acknowledged that different forms of violence tend to co-occur, such that many survivors of violence have been exposed to more than one violent event and/or more than one form of violence. Despite mounting evidence concerning the associations between polyvictimization and health, there are still important gaps in this knowledge concerning adult female population's sexual health, including both physical and mental aspects associated with it. The aim of this study was to evaluate the exposure to emotional, physical, and sexual violence among women and associations with poor self-perceived health, dissatisfaction with life, stress, and worry due to sex life and sexual dysfunction. The term polyvictimization is used in this article to express the exposure to more than one form of violence. We used data from a cross-sectional study carried out in Estonia in 2014 among women aged 16 to 44 years. Responses of 2,333 women were analyzed for this article. Of all the respondents, 27.9% were polyvictimized. Women who had been exposed to all three forms of violence had, after adjusting for confounding factors, the highest risk of reporting poor self-perceived health, limited daily activities due to chronic health problems, feelings of depression, dissatisfaction with life, stress, and worry due to sex life and sexual dysfunction. The results of this study demonstrate that exposure to violence is associated with poorer health outcomes and that the association is stronger among those who have been polyvictimized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines institutional resistance to veganism, with a focus on the medical system. Based on a qualitative analysis of vegans' accounts of medical encounters in Estonia, collected via an online questionnaire, I argue that the vegan body is socially constructed as a deviant entity by medical professionals. I suggest that the medical professionals' perceptions of vegans are based less on the actual conditions of their bodies but more on ideas about what are socially and politically acceptable identities and (bodily) practices. Deviance is produced through association with the uneasy category of 'vegan'. The experiences of vegans in the medical system illuminate the role of powerful social institutions in resisting transition towards more ethical and ecologically sustainable food practices and in endorsing human exploitation of other animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Best decisions in child welfare removal are made together with children. • Safe and inclusive child participation is the best protection of any child. • Change of professionals' understandings and daily routine are crucial for any reform. • Application of Lundy model supports changes in the practice. Participation is one of the basic rights of the child, which includes participation in juridical decision-making processes that affect the life of the child; however, considering the complexity of judicial proceedings such as child welfare removal and the peculiarities connected to a child as a vulnerable human being in his/her developmental process, this is not an easy topic. The outcome of child participation, whether harmful or beneficial, depends on many different factors, including the quality of professionals' activity during the process. In this paper, we discuss professionals' ability to support children's positive participation in decision making in Estonian child welfare removal. In our analysis, we compare children's perspectives with professionals' perspectives. The children's perspectives are based on their lived experiences of removal, and the professionals' perspectives originate from the views of child protection workers (CPW) and advocates who represent children during removal proceedings. The data derive from the authors' recent research projects. First, we secondarily analyzed a selection of transcripts of interviews (n = 20) with children with lived experience of removal from Estonian research for a Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) project (2013–14). Second, we analyzed the Estonian part of the inquiry data from the Improving Decisions through Empowerment and Advocacy (IDEA) project (2017–19) questionnaires administered to specialists (n = 107), with a particular focus on the respondents' comments and answers to the qualitative open-ended questions. The conceptual framework for the comparison is based on Lundy's model of child participation. The results show significant differences between children's and professionals' interpretations of child participation and a deficit of dialogues between children and professionals in child welfare removal proceedings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Predictions of two different models for suicide attempts (SA) over 12 months, as differentially impacted by specific school‐based suicide prevention interventions, were compared. These were as follows: (a) interpersonal theory (IPTS) and (b) a two‐pathway model, one path associated with externalizing symptoms and continuum of self‐harm behaviors, and the other with internalizing symptoms. Methods: Self‐report questionnaires were completed by 11,110 high school students from ten EU countries enrolled in the Saving and Empowering Young Lives in Europe (SEYLE) study. Baseline measures included perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness from parents and peers, health risk behaviors, self‐injury, suicide ideation (SI), and attempts (SA). SI and SA were reassessed at 12‐month follow‐up. Each model's predictions of SI and SA groups over time (i.e., repeated SA, remitted SA, SA onset, and no SA) were estimated in the no intervention/control group. The superior model was estimated across intervention groups. Results: Interpersonal theory showed better fit compared to the two‐pathway model. In partial agreement with IPTS predictions, parental low belongingness but not peer belongingness or burdensomeness predicted greater likelihood of SI. The likelihood of repeated SA versus no SA was higher among adolescents who reported SI, self‐injury, risk behaviors, and particularly both SI and self‐injury. All three interventions attenuated the combined effect of SI and self‐injury. Youth Aware of Mental Health Program (YAM) additionally decreased the effect of risk behaviors on the likelihood of repeated SA. Conclusions: Interpersonal theory assumptions were partially supported. Perceived interpersonal difficulties with parents were primarily related with SI, and risk behaviors and self‐injury were important predictors of SA. Suicide prevention interventions may be effective by mitigating the hazardous effect of varying self‐harm behaviors and may be further advanced by increasing parental involvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Older patients quite often arrive in an emergency department (ED) with a family member, but little is known about the family member’s health evaluated in ED. The aim of this study was to describe family health in EDs evaluated by family members and nurses. Data were collected from Estonian hospital EDs from 111 family members of older patients and from 93 nurses. Family health in EDs was evaluated as being at a moderate level. Family members reported that family health was better when older patients lived with the family. The more time the family spent in the ED, the worse the health-related activities were. Nurses reported that cardiovascular problems in older patients who presented in EDs disturbed the values of family health. We conclude that ED nurses should recognize the level of family health, in order to ensure that the family will be able to cope at home. Family health in EDs should be reviewed over time to help nurses meet the required needs of the family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background:We aimed to evaluate the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STI, includingMycoplasma genitalium,Chlamydia trachomatis,Neisseria gonorrhoeae,Trichomonas vaginalis) among high-risk heterosexual male patients and to clarify their potency to cause complaints and inflammation. Methods:The study group included 825 men (18.0–49.5 y) consulting andrologist at Tartu University Hospital (Estonia) due to subjectively perceived risk of STI. Patients completed STI risk behaviour questionnaire. First voided urine was analysed for white blood cells and STIs. Results:In total 193 (23.4%) patients were positive for one or multiple STI. The prevalence ofC. trachomatis,M. genitalium,N. gonorrhoeae,T. vaginalisand combined STI was 14.3%, 4.4%, 2.7%, 0.7% and 1.3%, respectively.N. gonorrhoeaehad the highest potency to generate inflammatory reaction in first voided urine (100%) followed byC. trachomatis(72.0%),M. genitalium(63.9%) andT. vaginalis(33.3%).N. gonorrhoeaeandT. vaginaliscaused the highest mean number of complaints while half ofT. vaginaliscases and nearly fifth ofM. genitaliumandC. trachomatiscases were asymptomatic. Conclusions:C. trachomatishas the highest prevalence among Estonian high-risk men butM. genitaliumholds an important second place. Prevalence of combined STIs is low.N. gonorrhoeaehas the highest potency to generate urethral inflammation followed byC. trachomatisandM. genitalium. The highest number of complaints is also associated withN. gonorrhoeaewhile half ofT. vaginaliscases and nearly a fifth ofM. genitaliumandC. trachomatiscases are asymptomatic. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

People living with HIV (PLHIV) have higher rates of suicidal behavior than the general population. This study assessed suicidal behavior (ideation and/or attempts, ever and in the past 12 months) among PLHIV receiving outpatient HIV medical care in Estonia and associations between suicidal behavior and psychological treatment. The cross-sectional study collected data from January to November 2013 using a self-report questionnaire. Eight hundred PLHIV participated, 39 % (n = 306) of whom had been suicidal. Lifetime prevalence was 36 % for suicidal ideation and 20 % for attempts. Younger age, incarceration, having ever abused alcohol and also injected drugs, having lived with HIV for more than 10 years, and being depressed were associated with lifetime suicidal behavior. Suicidal behavior within the past 12 months was reported by 20 % (n = 156) of respondents. Of these, 27 % received psychological treatment (counseling and/or psychotherapy), 20 % had taken antidepressants, and 49 % sedatives. Individuals perceiving a need for treatment were significantly more likely to receive psychological treatment when experiencing suicidal behavior (OR 25.65, 95 % CI 2.92-225.47). In conclusion, suicidal behavior is frequent among PLHIV but psychological treatment is not often received. One of the barriers to treatment is patients' lack of perceived need for help. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: We assessed the impact of hip fracture on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and costs in Estonia. The mean 18-month HRQoL loss in quality adjusted life years (QALY) was estimated at 0.31, and the average cumulative cost from a societal perspective was 8146 euros per hip fracture patient. Introduction: The aim of this study is to estimate the impact of hip fracture on HRQoL, resource consumption, and cost over 18 months after the fracture among individuals aged over 50 in Estonia. Methods: A cohort of 205 hip fracture patients ≥50 years was followed up for 18 months. HRQoL was estimated before fracture (recall), after fracture, and at 4, 12, and 18 months using the EQ-5D instrument. Health care utilization and costs were obtained from a public health insurance fund database; social, informal, and indirect costs were estimated using patient-reported data. Results: Hip fracture resulted in the mean 18-month HRQoL loss of 0.31 QALYs. The mean 18-months cumulative cost of hip fracture from a societal perspective was estimated at 8146 (95 % CI 6236-10717) euros per patient. Most of the cost was related to health care (56 %) and informal care (33 %), while social care contributed only 5 %. Utilization of outpatient rehabilitation and nursing care was low (8 % of patients). Conclusions: The impact of hip fracture on HRQoL and cost was substantial. Despite appropriate inpatient care, utilization of rehabilitation, nursing care, and social care were low and potentially insufficient to meet the needs of patients with low HRQoL. The shortfall may partially explain a remarkably high use of informal care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child protective worker perspectives and principles are known to affect practitioner–-client interaction. However, there is little research on the principles underpinning workers' assessment activities in transitioning post-Soviet societies where child protection is a relatively new field. This article presents the findings of a small-scale, qualitative study that explored the perspectives and principles that Estonian child protective workers utilize to inform their assessments. The respondents (N = 20) provided examples of real-life cases that reflected their assessment perspectives. The results indicated that too often workers' assessments demonstrate an over-reliance on an authoritarian, deficit-based approach that does not sufficiently include family or child perspectives. Such an approach may suggest the lingering influence of philosophies that informed family policy during the Soviet occupation. Workers with advanced training in social work and strength-based practices were more likely to focus on family strengths, build collaborative relationships with parents and children, and report successful outcomes in their cases. This study underscores the potential influence of previous Soviet occupation on child welfare practices in Estonia and also the need for further training of the nation's child protective workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background The knowledge surrounding nurses' work motivation is currently insufficient, and previous studies have rarely taken into account the role of many influential background factors. Aim This study investigates the motivation of Estonian nurses in hospitals, and how individual and organisational background factors influence their motivation to work. Methods The study is quantitative and cross-sectional. An electronically self-reported questionnaire was used for data collection. The sample comprised of 201 Registered Nurses working in various hospital settings in Estonia. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, two-sample Wilcoxon rank-sum ( Mann- Whitney) test, Kruskal- Wallis equality-of-populations rank test and Spearman's correlation. Results Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations were noted among hospital nurses. Nurses were moderately externally motivated ( M = 3.63, SD = 0.89) and intrinsically strongly motivated ( M = 4.98, SD = 1.03). A nurses' age and the duration of service were positively correlated with one particular area of extrinsic work motivation, namely introjected regulation (p < 0.001). Nurses who had professional training over 7 days per year had both a higher extrinsic motivation (p = 0.016) and intrinsic work motivation (p = 0.004). Conclusions The findings expand current knowledge of nurses' work motivation by describing the amount and orientation of work motivation among hospital nurses and highlighting background factors which should be taken into account in order to sustain and increase their intrinsic work motivation. The instrument used in the study can be an effective tool for nurse managers to determine a nurse's reasons to work and to choose a proper motivational strategy. Further research and testing of the instrument in different countries and in different contexts of nursing is however required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the relationship between adolescent bystanders’ strategies for intervening in the bullying-like situation and their gender, values, and cultural origin. The sample consisted of 682 Estonian and Russian-Estonian adolescents (Mage = 13.02 years). They were shown a video of a bullying-like situation with a non-intervening adult bystander and asked to describe what they would do if they, instead of the adult, witnessed that situation. Only 10% said that they would not intervene. Girls were more likely than boys to suggest multiple actions. Adolescents who valued conformity were less likely to propose using physical aggression. Doing nothing was less likely suggested by those who placed more importance on conformity and less on power. Estonian adolescents were more likely than their Russian-Estonian peers to suggest finding out what is going on, and less likely to say that they would do nothing. The findings suggest that although most adolescents express willingness to help the victim, they might not actually know how to intervene. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The purpose of the study was to analyse the assessments of elderly people aged 65 and more about family caregiving as a factor influencing their quality of life and coping. The study is based on the project SUFACARE—‘Supporting family carers and care receivers in Estonia and in Finland’—in the framework of which the Institute of Social Work of Tallinn University carried out postal surveys in 2010. The Estonian survey was conducted in Tallinn and Lääne-Viru County. The total number of respondents was 581 (70% female and 30% male), of whom 98 (n=74 female andn=24 male) were family caregivers. Caregiving has not influenced the physical and mental health of caregivers, the reason being that many people who receive care are not of very ill health or suffer from dementia. People mostly take care of their spouses. Based on the Estonian Family Law Act (RT I 2009, 60, 395), adult descendants are required to provide maintenance if their relatives are not able to care for themselves. Caregivers whose health is below average consider caring to be physically demanding. We cannot speak of the social isolation of respondents who have care duties—they communicate actively and do not feel lonely. Women report caregiving to be physically strenuous more often than men. The mental health of male caregivers is better—fewer male respondents claimed to feel unhappy or depressed compared to female respondents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundPredictD is a risk algorithm that was developed to predict risk of onset of major depression over 12 months in general practice attendees in Europe and validated in a similar population in Chile. It was the first risk algorithm to be developed in the field of mental disorders. Our objective was to extend predictD as an algorithm to detect people at risk of major depression over 24 months.MethodParticipants were 4190 adult attendees to general practices in the UK, Spain, Slovenia and Portugal, who were not depressed at baseline and were followed up for 24 months. The original predictD risk algorithm for onset of DSM-IV major depression had already been developed in data arising from the first 12 months of follow-up. In this analysis we fitted predictD to the longer period of follow-up, first by examining only the second year (12–24 months) and then the whole period of follow-up (0–24 months).ResultsThe instrument performed well for prediction of major depression from 12 to 24 months [c-index 0.728, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.675–0.781], or over the whole 24 months (c-index 0.783, 95% CI 0.757–0.809).ConclusionsThe predictD risk algorithm for major depression is accurate over 24 months, extending it current use of prediction over 12 months. This strengthens its use in prevention efforts in general medical settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the current survey was to investigate the complementary self-treatment of the common cold and flu with medicinal plants among pharmacy customers in Estonia. A multiple-choice questionnaire listing 10 plants and posing questions on the perceived characteristics of cold and flu, the effectiveness of plants, help-seeking behaviour, self-treatment and sources of information, was distributed to a sample of participants in two medium size pharmacies. The participants were pharmacy customers: 150 in Tallinn (mostly Russian speaking) and 150 in Kuressaare (mostly Estonian speaking). The mean number of plants used by participants was 4.1. Of the respondents, 69% self-treated the common cold and flu and 28% consulted with a general practitioner. In general, medicinal plants were considered effective in the treatment of the above-mentioned illnesses and 56% of the respondents had used exclusively medicinal plants or their combination with OTC medicines and other means of folk medicine for treatment. The use of medicinal plants increased with age and was more frequent among female than male respondents. Among Estonian-speaking customers lime flowers, blackcurrant and camomile were more frequently used, and among Russian speaking customers raspberry and lemon fruits. Regardless of some statistically significant differences in preferred species among different age, education, sex and nationality groups, the general attitude towards medicinal plants for self-treatment of the common cold and flu in Estonia was very favourable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Pediatric sleep research is rather new in Estonia. There has not been a comprehensive study of age specific sleep disorders in Estonian children. The aim of this study was to investigate sleep disorders in a sample of Estonian second grade children. We hypothesized that: · Children with low BMI are as susceptible to SDB as are children with high BMI. · Under weight children are susceptible to residual SDB after adenotonsillectomy. · Parasomnias present with SDB in children. · Excessive day time sleepiness is a significant symptom which leads parents to suspect sleep disorders in their child. Methods A retrospective questionnaire based survey was used to analyze factors influencing sleep, parasomnias, daytime sleepiness, and sleep disordered breathing (SDB). 1065 Pediatric Sleep Questionnaire (PSQ) packets were distributed by post to randomly selected parents of second grade students; 703 (66%) subjects were included in the study group; each parent/guardian participant had one second grade child. Descriptive statistics were used to compare characteristics of SDB symptomatic and healthy children. We used logistic regression to analyze factors influencing sleep and parasomnias in relation to SDB severity. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% CI were used to estimate relative risk. Results Parents of children with SDB complaints seem to pay attention to sleep disorders especially when a child is suffering from excessive day time sleepiness. Parasomnias are present simultaneously with SDB and tend to worsen in relation to more severe SDB complaints. Many underweight children have SDB symptoms after adenotonsillectomy. Conclusion SDB symptoms are found in both overweight and underweight children. Both groups should be observed, especially in terms of the current focus on overweight children. Careful follow up after SDB treatment is necessary in case of under and overweight children. Parental suspicions regarding SDB are noticeably higher in cases of excessive daytime sleepiness in their children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Paediatric head trauma is a serious health concern often leading to neurological, behavioural and cognitive impairments. In Estonia head trauma incidence is especially high in children up to 4 years. Objective: The aim was to investigate young children's pre-injury social-emotional behaviour to discover potential risk signs for brain trauma and to study social-emotional outcome 9 months post-injury. Methods: Thirty-five 3-65 month old children with mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) and 70 matched controls were retrospectively assessed with child monitoring system Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Social-Emotional. During follow-up 27 patients and 54 controls were re-assessed after 9 months. Results: Children with MTBI showed altered social-emotional development already before the injury. Deficits were evident in self-regulation and autonomy. Age-specific social-emotional risk signs for MTBI were found. Compared to controls more pre-injury affective problems were seen in 12-month olds, self-regulation, and communication difficulties in 30-month olds and autonomy disturbances in 60-month old children. 9 months post-injury impairments in autonomy and self-regulation were still present and new difficulties in interaction had developed. Conclusions: Childhood MTBI has a serious negative effect on further development of interaction skills. To prevent possible traumas, parents should be informed of different age-specific pre-injury social-emotional risk signs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims and objectives. To describe the intensive care unit patients' perceptions about the importance of their different needs and how their needs are met in Estonian hospitals, and to determine the correlations between the patients' perceptions and their demographic characteristics and background variables. Background. Meeting needs of patients in intensive care unit is important for avoiding unpleasant experiences and providing patient-centred care. Design. A descriptive questionnaire survey. Methods. The study was performed in sixteen intensive care units (ICUs) in six acute care hospitals in Estonia. Data were collected over six months in 2008 using the structured five-point scale questionnaire Needs of Adult Patients in Intensive Care Unit. The Convenience sample consisted of The adult patients discharged from ICUs to hospital wards able to answer the questionnaire ( n = 166). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and statistical tests. Results. Patients' needs varied and were sometimes unmet. The most important needs were physical comfort and feeling safe. Privacy, involvement of family and friends and being involved in decision-making were less important. The more important a need was perceived to be, the better it was met. The need for physical comfort was met best, involvement in decision-making worst. Patients with lower educational level and unscheduled patients agreed more that their needs were met. The better the patients considered their condition when leaving the ICU, the more they agreed that their needs were met. Conclusions. The findings provide a basis for understanding the needs of critically ill adults in Estonian ICUs to provide them more patient-centred care and improve their psychological well-being and quality of life after discharge. Relevance to clinical practice. Identifying and acknowledging the personal needs of patients in intensive care unit is important. When meeting the patients' needs, their individual characteristics should be taken into consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The special norms in testing for HIV infection are not typical of testing or screening for other diseases. In four European countries, we studied health professionals’ views on HIV testing This study is based on cross-sectional surveys of two groups of health professionals: presidents of selected health professional societies and head physicians and nurses of selected hospital clinics in Belgium, Estonia, Finland, and Portugal in 2008. A common structured semi-anonymous questionnaire was used in the four countries. The number of societies responding varied from five to 10 and for hospital clinics from six to 18; the response rates were from 32% to 100% and 41% to 100%, respectively. Opinions on whether HIV testing is like any other test and on the value of specific approaches in HIV testing varied both within and between countries. Some professionals thought that HIV testing is different from the testing of other infectious diseases; others thought that such an exceptional approach may be a disservice to people and to the health system. Many professionals thought that HIV testing should not be thought of only from the point of view of the individual to be tested, but also from that of other people (potential patients). Obligatory testing was considered appropriate in certain circumstances. Generally, more HIV testing in health care was called for. Normalization of HIV testing, i.e., considering it like any other diagnostic test, is unlikely to meet much opposition from health professionals. Larger surveys are needed to confirm the results. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The aim of this study was to examine the differences in psychosocial and motivational variables between persistent and dropout youth athletes and between groups with different years in training. Team and individual youth athletes completed questionnaires measuring autonomy support from parents and coaches, peer motivational climate, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and sport motivation. The results showed that athletes who dropped out perceived significantly less competence, relatedness, and autonomy need satisfaction, and they perceived less autonomy support from parents and were less intrinsically motivated than persistent athletes. Youth athletes with up to one year in training reported significantly lower effort and intra-team conflict with peers, relatedness need satisfaction, and external motivation than athletes with 1 to 3 years and > 3 years in training. Findings extend knowledge of the psychosocial determinants of sport continuation behaviour among young athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]