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American research universities have recently joined the march for internationalization and now are putting explicit efforts into finding ways to create an international focus. Within a short number of years, their missions have been transformed, incorporating elements of globalization. Universities now declare the importance of preparing students to live and work in a multicultural and global world. They document the increased numbers of international students and faculty on campus and their support for Study Abroad programs that provide first-hand international experience as well as curricular changes. However, there is little research regarding how effective universities have been in achieving their overall goal of internationalization, in particular any assessment of increased student global competency resulting from the undergraduate experience at a major research university. This study begins to fill that gap by investigating the contribution of each of a number of specific globally focused activities offered by these universities to the increased self-assessed global competency of undergraduates. The data are from the spring 2012 administration of the Student Experience in Research University (SERU) Survey that included responses from 33,784 undergraduate students from 15 major American research universities. The study develops a six-item measure of global competency and then uses a four-stage multiple regression model to examine how participation in each of nine globally oriented activities contribute to self-assessed increases in global competency since enrollment at the university. The results indicate the significant relationship of participation in globally oriented activities to increased sense of global competency with the pattern of relationships varying by year in school. For seniors, for example, interaction with students from outside the US in social settings makes the largest contribution to gains in global competence, followed by taking courses with an international focus and study abroad.

While destination-country education provides many potential advantages for immigrants, empirical studies in Australia, Canada and the United States have produced mixed results on the labour outcomes of immigrants who are former international students. This study uses large national longitudinal datasets to examine cross-cohort trends and within-cohort changes in earnings among three groups of young university graduates: immigrants who are former international students in Canada (Canadian-educated immigrants), foreign-educated immigrants who had a university degree before immigrating to Canada and the Canadian-born population. The results show that Canadian-educated immigrants on average had much lower earnings than the Canadian-born population but higher earnings than foreign-educated immigrants both in the short term and in the long term. However, Canadian-educated immigrants are a highly heterogeneous group, and the key factor differentiating their post-immigration earnings from the earnings of the Canadian-born population and foreign-educated immigrants is whether they held a well-paid job in Canada before becoming permanent residents.

We examined the validity of 10 psychosocial factors for predicting retention status (stay, transfer, or drop out) at the start of second year of college by fitting a mixed-effects multinomial logistic regression model. Data consisted of retention records of 9,364 students from 31 four-year institutions. Predictors included commonly used variables for predicting college retention (i.e., high school grade point average [HSGPA], ACT Composite score, gender, family income, and race/ethnicity) and the 10 psychosocial factors. We examined the differential effects of psychosocial factors on retention status, namely which psychosocial attributes differentiated students who stayed from those who transferred or dropped out, and which psychosocial factors differentiated students who transferred from students who dropped out. Our results indicated that "Academic Discipline", "Commitment to College", "Social Connection", and "Academic Self-Confidence" incrementally predicted first-to-second year retention status above and beyond the commonly used variables. Specifically, students with higher "Academic Discipline", "Commitment to College", or "Social Connection" were "more" likely to stay at their institutions than to drop out or transfer; whereas students with higher "Academic Self-Confidence" were "less" likely to stay than to drop out or transfer, and also "less" likely to transfer than to drop out. These results were confirmed using a follow-up cross-validation analysis on a holdout sample of 4,804 students. These findings may have implications for interventions aimed at identifying students at risk of dropping out of college and for improving retention to the second year of college.

The aims of this working paper were to investigate whether taking part in out of school activities during primary school is linked with end of primary school attainment and social, emotional and behavioural outcomes, for all children and specifically for children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. The analysis is based on the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) survey data linked to administrative data holding the cohort children's Key Stage 1 (KS1) and Key Stage 2 (KS2) attainment scores. In addition to looking at KS2 attainment (total point score, English and maths) we also investigated social, emotional and behavioural outcomes using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) total difficulties and prosocial skills scores. The results presented in this paper are based on logistic and multiple linear regression analysis. Results showed that sports clubs and "other" (unspecified) club participation was positively associated with attainment outcomes at age 11, when controlling for prior attainment. Participating in organised sports or physical activity was also positively linked to social, emotional and behavioural outcomes. Among disadvantaged children, after school club emerged as the only organised activity linked to child outcomes; participation was linked to both higher KS2 attainment and prosocial skills. The implications of these findings for further research, policy and practice are discussed. Appended to the report are: (1) KS2 Attainment regression tables; and (2) SDQ outcomes regression tables. A bibliography is included.

This paper describes an initial effort to provide a carefully reasoned, factually based, systematic analysis of teacher pay in comparison to pay in other occupations available to college-educated workers. It also reports on the sensitivity of these salary comparison estimates to differences in certain characteristics of the labor force, such as sex, age, marital status, and ethnic identity. The data, derived from the individual record file of the March 1983 Current Population Survey of the United States Bureau of the Census, consisted of observations of college-educated salaried workers in the 12 southeastern states: 3,383 nonteachers and 373 public school teachers. Primary analysis of data provides comparisons of average annual wage between teachers and nonteachers, personal characteristics of the two groups, and comparison of average annual teacher salaries for 1981-82 and 1982-83. A regression equation is then used to relate annual earnings of college-educated workers in nonteaching occupations to various independent variables. Results of the analysis show that current teacher pay levels are inadequate to compete with other occupations. Suggestions are made as to the specific salary ranges within which competitive teacher salaries might lie. References are included, along with six illustrative tables. (TE)

This paper examines the possibility that returns to various personal characteristics obtained from education differ among five Spanish surname ethnic groups as well as for Blacks and non-black, non-Spanish people (Anglos). Numerous studies have found differences in the returns that Blacks and Whites obtain from education, experience, migration, and other personal characteristics. To measure these differences in return, it is now common practice to run entirely separate regressions for Blacks and Whites; especially significant for policy have been findings that Black-White earnings differences stem not only from lower Black educational attainment, but also from lower Black returns to education. The data for this study came from the 1971 Current Population Survey. It was found that in 1970 returns to education were 30 percent higher for men of Cuban and Central or South American origin than for non-Spanish, non-Black (Anglo) men, Puerto Rican men or other Spanish men. Black and Chicano men had returns of about 70 percent those of Anglo men. These differences are not explained by differences in nativity, mother tongue, years of education, or marital status. Differences in discrimination, quality of schooling, and class origin may be the causes, but data are insufficient to draw firm conclusions. (Author/JM)

The major issue investigated in this paper is whether or not any change appears over a five-year peiod in the differences in performances between minority and non-minority students in that district. Since the relative performance advantage of non-minority students is frequently ascribed to their better backgrounds, socio-economic factors are held constant. The data used consist of test scores obtained for each student in the third, fifth, and seventh grades, plus a measure of the socio-economic status of that student's family. Multiple regression analysis is used. The study concludes that the test scores of minority students relative to those of non-minority students do not appear to change much over time. Although Anglo students score higher than Black or Spanish students, socio-economic factors, while accounting for a significant portion of test-score differences, do not account for all racial/ethnic differences. The persistence of significant test-performance differences between Anglos and minorities over time leads one to conclude that the school system described in this study succeeded in maintaining the relative performance position of the three major racial/ethnic groups but did not substantially succeed in eliminating the performance deficiency exhibited by minority students. (Author/JM)

While theoretical and empirical research on the economics of human capital is still in its relative youth, a substantial body of work has already accumulated on the variables determining worker earnings and on the importance of schooling as one of those determinants. The present paper focusses attention on one such variable that has received almost no attention in the literature, namely, experience. The concept of experience is explored, its various forms examined, and then a number of operational measures of experience in models of individuals' earnings are applied. The primary objective is to learn more about the quantitative importance of experience as one (or more than one) determinant of earnings. Also investigated is the quantitative importance of schooling as a determinant of earnings. Regression estimates are sensitive to the specification and measurement of experience. A body of data is analyzed to assess both the quantitative importance of the various types of experience and the effect of their inclusion on the estimated co-efficient of schooling. This body of data is drawn from a national sample of 3000 male veterans aged 18-35, who were included in the 1964 Current Population Survey. Data for the 965 men for whom complete information was available on the variables of interest was used. (Author/JM)

This paper is an extended series of appendices to the report "Exploring the T.R.Q.: An Assessment of the Effectiveness of the Teachers' Rating Questionnaire," Report Number 123. It should be most useful to those familiar with multiple regression analysis and factor analysis and wishing a more complex record of the statistical procedures originally employed. This supplement takes a precise look at estimation of reliability coefficients from delayed retest data, indices used in evaluating theoretical distributions and analysis of the correlation matrices of the TRQ questions. (Author)

This essay treats inequality in access to schooling in demographic perspective. In constructing a brief history of educational inequality in the U.S., the 1962 and 1973 surveys of "Occupational Changes in a Generation" are drawn on heavily. It is found that among men born in the U.S. during the first half of this century, inequality of schooling has declined sharply, even as educational attainment has increased to levels unprecedented elsewhere in the world. Not only has total inequality in the distribution of schooling declined, but both the variability in schooling which may be attributed to differences in social background and the variability which is independent of social background appear to have declined. Moreover, these increases in educational equality appear to have occurred within black and Spanish minority groups as much as in the majority population. There is a mixture of change and stability in the effects of social background characteristics on schooling. On the whole, social origins have become more favorable to high levels of schooling with minority groups, as in the majority population, but large differences in social origins persist among these groups, and in some instances the social origins of majority and minority populations have diverged. For cohorts of U.S. men born in this century, half or more of the variance in schooling must be attributed to the influence of family background. (Author/JM)

This paper outlines the design of two Comparative Studies of Phase IV of the Individually Guided Education (IGE) Evaluation Project. More than 2,000 elementary schools in 25 states use the IGE system. The Evaluation Project was designed to gain a comprehensive view of the system's operation and effectiveness. Phase IV investigated pupil outcomes, instructional time, and means of instruction. It focused on two IGE curriculum programs designed for compatibility with instructional programming for the individual student: (1) the Wisconsin Design for Reading Skills Development (WDRSD); and (2) Developing Mathematical Processes (DMP). Second and fifth grade students and their teachers in three types of schools were studied: (1) IGE schools using DMP or WDRSD; (2) Non-IGE schools using DMP or WDRSD; and (3) IGE schools using neither program. Data were collected during the 1978-79 school year from achievement monitoring and domain referenced tests, teacher logs, classroom observations, and questionnaires which served as the basis for structured interviews with school staff. Pupil attainment of specified program objectives was contrasted in IGE schools using different programs and in IGE and non-IGE schools using WDRSD or DMP. Regression analyses were performed using the residual gain score as the dependant variable and instructional time, means of instruction, and school variables as the independent variables. (BS)

The link between educational expenditure and student achievement remains a lively topic of debate after almost 30 years of study. This paper is designed to help legislators and other state policymakers understand a complex and technical area of research that will play an important role in state funding decisions. The paper examines why the relationship between educational expenditure and student achievement is important to state legislators and other policymakers; discusses results of early studies (1965-90) that explored the relationship between educational expenditure and student achievement; analyzes more recent studies (1990-95) of that relationship; identifies state initiatives linking educational expenditure and student achievement; and offers conclusions and recommendations to state policymakers. State policymakers are advised to explore alternatives for forging proactive links between education funding and student achievement; fund fiscal incentive and reward programs at the school and school district levels; develop long-term state research around the relationship of expenditure and achievement; and collect and maintain the necessary data for research and decision making. Two tables and 15 endnotes are included. (Contains 12 references.) (LMI)

This paper examines the relationship between female schooling and two behaviors--cumulative fertility and contraceptive use--in 14 Sub-Saharan African countries where Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) have been conducted since the mid-1980s. Using multivariate regression analysis, the paper compares the effect of schooling across countries, in urban and rural areas, and across different cohorts of women. The results show a negative correlation between female schooling and fertility in virtually all of the countries. Female primary schooling has a negative relation with fertility in about half of the countries and no relation in the other half. Secondary schooling is universally associated with lower fertility, and the strength of the effect increases with the years of schooling. Among ever-married women, husband's schooling has no significant relation with fertility in one-third of the countries and, when both women's and men's schooling matter, women's schooling exerts a much larger negative effect on fertility than men's schooling. Even low levels of female schooling are found to have a positive relationship with contraceptive use, but higher levels of schooling have a greater effort. Botswana, Kenya and Zimbabwe were found to have the highest levels of female schooling, lowest child mortality rates and the most vigorous family planning programs. (JE)

Evaluations in education often throw away important information because of a penchant for averages. Multiple regression techniques are used to estimate the average effect of policies across schools, and usually school performance is represented by the average score of its students on an achievement test. The author suggests some ways of broadening educational evaluations: (1) to consider "outliers," or exceptional performers among schools; and especially, (2) to consider other statistics of a school's distribution of scores besides the mean, which have an intuitive link to ill-defined but still meaningful educational objectives like equality, mobility, success with exceptional children, and attainment of certain minimum levels of skills. Tables reflecting the author's research are included. (Author/SE)

For many persons, a satisfying group experience involves reaching a desired level of personal participation. The experimental laboratory studies of communication network groups have been the most rigorous attempts at understanding the effects of differential participation. It has been shown that centrality of a subject's position influences: (1) his sense of being a part of the group, (2) the amount of information available to him, and (3) his importance in the process of locomotion and progress toward group goals. These are aspects of member participation. The present study used decision conferences incorporating either centralized or decentralized decision structures to investigate the resulting attitudinal consequences of these conferences for the members relative to their performance, position, and participation in the group decision process. (Author)

This study investigates how local school districts behave in allocating their budgets among teachers, other professional educators, support personnel, and nonpersonnel inputs. Demands for school inputs are estimated using U.S. Office of Education data on the expenditure and staffing patterns of large (enrollments in excess of 10,000 students) school districts in the 1969-70 school year. In general, results suggest that districts' allocative behavior at the margin is quite different from their average allocative behavior. In particular, relatively small proportions of budget increases (occasioned, perhaps, by reforms in school finance) would be allocated to employing additional teachers. (Author)

A study was conducted to describe the television viewing habits of grade 6 children in primary schools within the metropolitan area of Melbourne, Australia; to examine the nature of the relationships between factors found to be relevant in explaining television behavior; and to examine the relationship between television behavior and school achievement. Data were collected from a 2-stage cluster sample of 271 grade 6 children using a questionnaire; tests of intelligence, self-esteem, and comprehension in social studies; and a diary of television viewing over a period of seven days. A questionnaire was also completed by the subjects' teachers. Statistical analyses involved simple descriptive statistics, bivariate correlation and multiple regression analyses, and canonical analysis. The hypothesizing and subsequent testing of causal path models of the interrelationships between variables enabled the study to cope more efficiently with the complex interrelationships between variables. Results confirmed the important influence that television has on the lives of children, and the importance of home background variables and personal characteristics in influencing television viewing patterns. (Author/CMV)

Using data obtained from a National Center for Health Statistics Household Health Survey, a model for children's medical care utilization was tested. The variables included in the model were need, physician supply, family preference, and family disposable income. The first question addressed was the income effect on children's visits to physicians. Most of the apparent effect of income on children's visits to the physician can be attributed to the number of children in the family and the education of the male and female heads. The income effect is not completely accounted for, however. It may be that the price of medical care is such that it constrains utilization except at the very highest income levels. The second question was the effect of other parts of the model on children's visits to the physician. The analysis suggested that need--as indicated by the age of the child--and family preferences had the largest effects on children's medical care utilization. This analysis brings into question the direct effect of poverty on health care, an assumption of policies to increase health care for the poor. It suggests that the less frequent utilization of physicians by lower income persons is largely due to their lesser preference for that care. (Author/JM)

The globalization of economic activities progresses worldwide. The internationalization of higher education institutions is required to adapt itself to the situation. Particularly, the top universities of each country are expected to produce very significant research achievements and to recruit and educate excellent students from all over the world. Furthermore, in the general university, it is necessary to create a learning environment conducive to training which increases the rate of employment of globally-talented graduates. It is necessary to internationalize the educational and research activities of university academic staff to accept foreign students, send Japanese students to foreign universities and conduct an educational program in the English language. The purpose of this study is to determine the determinants of internationalizing the educational and research activities of the university academic staff by clarifying the attributes, consciousness, and environment of university academic staff which are related to the internationalization of educational and research activities of academic staff in Japanese universities.

The greatest limitation in establishing causality in observational studies on the effect of financial aid is the presence of endogeneity or selection bias associated with aid status. To control for this statistical confoundedness that besets the research corpus to date, this study estimates the effect of financial aid on freshmen retention at a moderately selective, public university using propensity score-matching in multi-stage regression analyses. The correlational pattern that emerged from twenty-four logit models suggests higher-income students accrue a retention benefit from financial aid, unlike low-income students, net of first-year academic experience and type and amount of aid received. Conversely, retention of low-income freshmen is more likely due to academic performance compared to those from high-income background. Findings on the effect of aid are consistent with the economics of moral hazard and unobservable behavior. (Contains 6 footnotes, 8 tables, and 2 figures.)