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The emergence of independent advocacy services for children and young people has had an impact on promoting the rights of children and young people. Historically, advocacy has been considered an important social work skill underpinned by principles of human rights and social justice. However, the development of independent advocacy and changes in the delivery of health and social care services have had an impact on how far social workers now feel able to directly advocate for service users. This paper interrogates the tensions faced by social workers in managing their advocacy role through a discussion of advocacy in relation to children and young people. By examining the concepts of 'best interests' and the welfare of the child the paper considers dilemmas for social workers committed to advocating for children and young people. It argues that if principles of social justice are to be upheld practitioners need to actively consider ways to reclaim a culture of advocacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sure Start was set up in 1998 as a flagship policy of the first New Labour government, with the promise of ten years funding. However, in 2003 it was superseded by plans for the establishment of Children's Centres, a universal programme rather than one for disadvantaged areas as in the case of Sure Start local programmes. The government claimed that the shift to Children's Centres represented continuity, but, using historical methods and key informant interviews, this paper shows that there was considerable change, particularly in the programme content and governance of the new centres. The paper explores the reasons for the policy shift in terms of factors arising from changes in government's goals for Sure Start and for children's services more broadly on the one hand, and from evidence of programme failure on the other. It concludes by reflecting on why the shift to Children's Centres was claimed as continuity rather than change, and what this tells us about the nature of policy change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a response to John Barton's posthumous paper on the date and authorship of the English thirteenth-century legal treatise Bracton. That paper was an extended critique of sections of a much shorter paper I had published in 1996 on these and related topics. It responds to the main criticisms Barton makes of my paper. It accepts a few of these but not others, and does not accept his main arguments against assigning a date prior to 1240 for significant parts of the treatise nor his renewed assertion of the claims of Henry de Bracton to be the sole author of the treatise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses the largely neglected papers of Sir Henry Bulwer, British minister at Madrid between 1843 and 1848, as a prism through which to view the fourth Earl of Aberdeen's handling of Anglo-French relations, in general, and in Spain over the marriages of Queen Isabella and her younger sister the Infanta Luisa Fernanda, in particular, during a critical period. It highlights the fact that developments in the historiograhical context and the recent availability of important private papers have created an opportunity for a detailed and much-needed re-examination of Aberdeen's foreign policy, Conservative foreign policy, and British policy towards Spain in the 1840s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By the nineteenth century, with the advance of British colonial activities, British corporate laws had been transplanted to maritime Asia with varying degrees of vigour. In British Hong Kong, these laws often clashed with native customs. Through a reconstruction of the legal disputes found in urban Hong Kong, this paper discusses how British and Chinese business traditions interacted with each other during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Before assessing the historical implications and consequences of these legal decisions, this paper will also explore whether the Chinese institution of tong is compatible with British law in urban Hong Kong. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the Inebriates Acts of 1879 and 1898 which facilitated the formal provision of institutional care for inebriates. The Acts'' permissive character produced an uneven geography of provision of institutions that meant that inebriate treatment varied markedly across the counties and county boroughs of England and Wales. The vast majority of those committed under the Acts were women. Using two exemplary case studies from Lancashire, a private retreat created under the 1879 Act and a council run reformatory created under the 1898 Act, the paper considers how debates about liberty and control shaped the regulation of problem drunkards. It shows that geography was as important as class, religion, and gender in determining who was subjected to regulation. The paper argues that the failure to reform inebriates helped the recoding of inebriety within a broader discourse of mental deficiency that encouraged the permanent segregation of problem populations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The UK historic city of Durham is considered by policymakers to be the 'jewel in the crown' in terms of economic potential for a county that has struggled to find a niche role following the collapse of coal mining. Perceived through the eyes of a local practitioner, this paper takes a look at how a networked ensemble of actors are responding to the economic recession and planning for the upturn. The paper examines the role of place quality improvements administered through the delivery of a city masterplan to stitch together the historic city fabric with a contemporary urban aesthetic. Through the case of the incremental renaissance of Durham city, it is suggested that a sensitive multi-layered development approach underpinned by deliberative democracy is required that responds to the needs of everyday users and local inhabitants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Born in Liverpool in 1863, John Archer spent time in the Americas before returning to Britain to become a well-known local politician within the emerging labour movement in Victorian and Edwardian London. This paper sketches his personal and political biographies highlighting the moments where his concerns about race, racism and the politics of Pan-Africanism and labour converged. Despite his pioneering role in London labour politics his biography remains fragmented. As such this paper reflects the problems inherent in investigating the role of black people in labour politics and the resulting troubles we have integrating their impact on broader political geographies of race and labour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information is presented about several papers from a conference sponsored by the Local Population Studies Society on historic studies of Great Britain's population. Samantha Williams delivered a paper on 18th-century metropolitan workhouses focusing on unwed mothers at St Luke's workhouse in Chelsea, England. Janet Gill discussed the 19th-century poor population of Cambridgeshire Lunatic Asylum, Fulbourn, England. Alannah Tomkins focused on working class attitudes towards workhouses based on her study of 19th-century British autobiographies.

This paper focuses on the structural development of institution-based interest in genetics in Anglo-North American medicine after 1930 concomitantly with an analysis of the changes through which ideas about heredity and the hereditary transmission of diseases in families have passed. It maintains that the unfolding relationship between medicine and genetics can best be understood against the background of the shift in emphasis in conceptualisations of recurring patterns of disease in families from ‘biological relatedness’ to ‘related to chromosomes and genes’. The paper begins with brief considerations of the historical confluences of, first, heredity and medicine and, second, genetics and medicine which, in a third section, leads to a discussion about a uniquely ‘genetics-based approach’ to medicine in the second half of the twentieth century. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Military service tribunals were established in Britain following the passing of the first Military Service Act 1916, to consider applications for exemption from men deemed thereby to have enlisted. The few that were stated upon the ground of conscience have attracted the most, and the most subjective, attention. Modern empathy with pacifist principles has made almost mandatory the depiction of the conscientious objector as a victim of, and even martyr to, the then-prevailing spirit of militarism. By the same token, posterity has judged the tribunals' record as a whole predominantly upon their treatment of these men. Fuelled by the early propaganda of the No-Conscription Fellowship and its successor, the No More War Movement, they emerge as the pharisaic civilian arm of the British establishment at war. The paper tests the sustainability of this perspective by reference to the tribunals' record in one county, Northamptonshire. Unusually, most of the papers relating to the county's appeals tribunal have survived. Together with reports carried in local newspapers, which maintained a voracious interest in tribunals' proceedings throughout the conscription period, they provide valuable insights into the dynamics of a system that has received relatively little, and selective, attention to date. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past 30-40 years, urban change and deindustrialisation in advanced economies have created a legacy of vacant and derelict land that is increasingly seen as a development opportunity rather than planning problem. This paper investigates how the shared challenge of bringing such brownfield sites back into productive use has been interpreted differently in four countries: the US, Canada, Scotland and England. In each case, the particular policy environment has shaped the brownfield debate in distinctive ways, producing a different set of relations between the public and private sectors in brownfield redevelopment. Through this detailed comparison of the North American and British experience, the paper traces the maturity of policy and seeks to discover whether the main differences in understanding and tackling brownfield land can be attributed primarily to physical, cultural or institutional factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the role of elite women in estate management, enclosure and landscape improvement in eighteenth-century England, a topic which has to date received little in the way of sustained academic consideration. The paper focuses on four women who took control of sizeable Northamptonshire estates in the 1760s and early 1770s, and demonstrates that these women were active as both managers and innovators. In examining the women's involvement in estate management, the paper explores a series of important questions about women's place in the history of parliamentary enclosure and landscape improvement, as well as women's role in eighteenth-century society more generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The meeting of the British Society for Research into Learning Mathematics held at the University of Southampton on 21st June 2008 was dedicated to the memory of Brian Griffiths, who had died earlier that month. At the meeting it was suggested that I write a paper tracing the development of research in mathematics education in the UK up to the writing of Mathematics: Society and Curricula, a book that Brian and I co-authored, published in 1974. This paper is dedicated to Brian's memory: I hope that it will be considered a fitting tribute to a great friend and colleague, and to an outstanding mathematician and mathematics educator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In recent years, historical geography has been at the forefront of new scholarship on the spatiality of colonial power and its complex relations with indigenous communities. This literature shows that imperial policies – emerging through state and scientific institutions, cultural practices, and capitalist ventures – required particular ways of conceptualizing, mapping, and organizing spaces and territories which transformed the geographies of indigenous communities, livelihoods, and identities. Through a close reading of archival texts from the late 19th and early 20th century, this paper examines the spatial and political relations between three groups: the Catholic Church, the British colonial state, and the Maya communities of southern British Honduras. Differences between the Catholic Church and the British colonial state – in their aims and approach to winning hegemony over the Q''eqchi'' and Mopan Maya – were accommodated and assuaged by a tacit agreement: that the Maya must be settled in permanent communities. Colonial power, in both its spiritual and statist modalities, was imminently geographical, and this geography comprised the common ground between Church and state in their approach to the Maya. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The importance of patents for economic development in general and for British industrialization in particular remains an unresolved issue, but one that during the past twenty-five years has benefited from intensive historical research. This paper re-examines the debate in the light both of that research and of revisionist histories of the British industrial revolution. It focuses on the nature and operation of the English patent system during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, prior to its reform in 1852. First, it re-examines the upward trend in patenting that begins in 1762 and coincides neatly but deceptively with the classic industrial revolution. Second, it investigates how much inventive activity was conducted beyond the patent system and is consequently not captured by the patent statistics. Third, it suggests we should think of the patent system as a technology in its own right: as with all technologies, it was shaped by the circumstances of its invention and development. It was a product of a period that was redefining property as subject to exclusively private ownership, and to this «intellectual property» was no exception. Unless we recognise that a patent, first and foremost, created a piece of private property, we are missing the point. Patenting had at least as much to do with investing as inventing; as much to do with capitalism as creativity. In conclusion, the paper reverses Douglass North's famous causal claim, arguing instead that the industrial revolution «set the stage» for the patent system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1908, London hosted the fourth Olympic Games. A centrepiece of the Olympics, still in a nascent form after their creation in 1896, was the marathon, a foot-race of approximately 40 km. The race was run from Windsor Castle to the Olympic Stadium at Shepherd's Bush in July 1908, and quickly became famous for its controversies, such as the judges' assistance that helped Dorando Pietri over the line, and the questionable amateur status of Canadian runner Tom Longboat. This paper will concentrate on the route of the race: on how it was planned by the Polytechnic Harriers, how it was managed on the day, how it contributed to the development of 'marathon fever' after the Olympics, and what it tells us about the growing suburban landscape of Edwardian London and its hinterlands. The paper will end with a survey of the route today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A report characterising the contents of archives with materials relating to the Chartist movement in Great Britain is presented. The papers of the Newcastle, England native, Chartist, and newspaper editor W. E. Adams, which are located in the Moscow, Russia State Archives is described. A study of how the Adams papers came to be archived in Russia is described. A copy of "The Chartist Penny Almanack, for the Year 1844 is considered. This work, which was published in Darlington, England, was analysed by the historian Malcolm Chase in the Autumn, 2008 issue of "Cleveland History." The papers of the Chartist, labour activist, and poet John Bedford Leno are also described.

The present paper explores the fascist vision for education in 1930s Britain through the presentation of extracts from official publications of the British Union of Fascists (BUF), as well as from the writings of Party members. The paper presents a socio-historical study of British adherents to fascism and provides an account of their thinking in relation to education and schooling, exposing a milieu of ideologues, Party functionaries and serving teachers who were animated by their political commitment. Following a brief outline of the early years of British fascism, there is an account of some key members and their educational ideas, followed by a discussion of the BUF's educational policies and of its approach to internal education and training. The orientation of the BUF and its membership to education, and the Party's formulated policies in this field present a modernist vision that was calculated to have particular appeal to educational professionals. There is a consideration, through memoirs, of the experiences of two BUF members who were teachers. The paper reveals a relatively hidden episode in the social history of British educational politics; one that contained paradoxes of intent and outcome, and of means and ends, when ostensibly progressive and socially elevating concepts were employed in ways that had an ultimately destructive impact on individuals, both personally and professionally, as well as on whole societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper explores how the concern with the apparent 'Americanization' of British commerce and culture played out within the world of London advertising in the post-war period. In doing so, it engages with, and partly challenges, a pervasive line of argument within economic and cultural history that has emphasized the influence of American commercial power over Europe's economies in the immediate post-war decades. Historians of this period, like contemporary commentators before them, have tended to privilege the dominance of what Victoria de Grazia has recently termed America's irresistible 'Market Empire' in their exploration of trans-Atlantic relations. In this paper, I take the case of JWT London, a US-owned multinational advertising agency, and its relationship with its parent company in order to revise claims about US commercial domination. JWT is an instructive case because it was a classic example of an international advertising agency in the era of high American commercial expansion. Yet the organization of its London office and the relations between London and New York reveal a picture of business practices that complicates assumptions about American commercial domination. JWT London was not the bold apostle of the American vision of its parent company, but rather it sought to soften and not aggressively assert the corporate identity and commercial ethos of its American parent. In this regard, JWT London, like other US companies before it and since, worked to shed its Americanness and go native. To insist on this process of indigenization is not to deny the authority of US models of commercial life in this period. Rather it is to suggest that even within a US-owned company like J. Walter Thompson, American commercial influences took particular forms in Britain and that the American domination over Europe was neither monolithic nor homogeneous nor irresistible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1868, an article in the Yorkshire Post about the West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum drew attention to Yorkshire's pivotal role in the history of mental health care. It was because of this history, it was claimed, that Yorkshiremen had a special interest in the treatment of the insane. The purpose of this paper is to explore critically this assumption in light of the recent work on the Poor Law's relationship with the asylum. The growth and development of two asylums in the neighbouring North and West Ridings of Yorkshire will be compared and contrasted. The first part of the paper offers a brief explanation of Yorkshire's pivotal role in the history of the institutional approach to the problems of mental health and the growth of institutions in the counties. Central to the paper will be an examination of how each county responded to the differing demands on its resources and how this impacted on the nature of care at each institution. Ultimately, this paper aims to show how Poor Law finances contributed significantly to the development of each institution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The special edition of JEAH published in August 2006 on 'Administration and Leadership in Education: A Case for History?' argued that history has been seriously undervalued in the study of administration and leadership in education. My introductory editorial explained why this mattered and outlined the framework in which the papers it contained were set. It then examined the concepts of administration and leadership in education and considered them as a field (or fields) of knowledge. In an exploration of how knowledge is produced, it discussed history as a form of knowledge and considered the contribution it could make to the study of the field. This was followed by a review of what was asked of the contributors and their response. The editorial concluded with ideas for future work. At the request of the new editors of the journal, this paper is a revised and extended version of my earlier editorial. Some aspects have been shortened (e.g., the review of contributions), others extended (e.g., views on history and its role), and some new material has been added (e.g., a discussion of the history of the field in the UK as represented in attempts to review the field since George Baron's ground-breaking keynote given at the first research conference of the British Educational Administration Society held in Birmingham in 1979). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accessible summary • This paper looks back at the education of people with learning difficulties from 1900 to 1970 who are blind or have very little sight. • The information was taken from printed documents and from six detailed interviews with people with learning difficulties who are blind or have very little sight. • The paper shows that people with learning difficulties who were blind or had very little sight often had no education at all and that the education they did receive did not usually meet their needs. • People with learning difficulties were sometimes placed in schools for children who were blind or had very little sight where they were bullied and abused. • It is hoped that this paper will add to the growing history of people with learning difficulties which is based on their own experiences. • The information in this paper is taken from a large study on the history of education of people who are blind or have very little sight in Britain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sport spectator experience is one that is widely held to involve "live" presence at a sporting event, and that the raison detre of sports spectating is to witness events live and in person. This paper builds on a previous ethnography of football spectating in the pub to develop a theoretical basis for the suggestion that sports spectating is as much about shared experience as it is about live presence. In doing so, it utilises perspectives from tourism literature relating to the nature of proximity and to the importance of being able to re-live and re-tell experiences. The paper concludes that whilst the pub as a spectator venue can provide a proximity to the sport spectating experience, the longevity of the experience in terms of its value as an experience to be re-told is significantly shorter than being able to say that one has "been there" at a live event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multidisciplinary public health (MDPH) has been a phenomenon in the UK of the 1990s and the early 21st century. Its achievement has been seen as a victory for non medical interests. While acknowledging this, the paper questions what sort of victory this represents. Public health in its sanitary phase in the mid-19th century was, after all, what passed for multidisciplinary with its mix of engineers, doctors and statisticians. Is the present simply a return to the sanitary phase? The paper argues that it is not, and that contemporary public health badly needs dearer definition. It identifies three dimensions of recent public health. Public health can be an occupation; a discourse or movement, and also an institutional location of which public health research is part. Looked at in this frame, public health has been multidisciplinary in the post war period. The development of public health research out of social medicine in the 1950s was multidisciplinary. Public health campaigning, separate from public health professionals, has also been multidisciplinary since the 1970s. Public health as an occupation has been preoccupied with its professional positioning. Will the wider multidisciplinary impetus of public health now be lost in a preoccupation with status? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European volunteer workers have received comparatively little attention in the history of British post-war immigration, with greater coverage given to, for example, demobilised members of the Polish Resettlement Corps. This paper is based upon oral history interviews with a group of European immigrants, predominantly European volunteer workers, and local Lancastrians who started work in the Lancashire cotton industry between 1946 and 1951, and examines perceptions of how they integrated into British life in a variety of domains. The paper emphasises that 'blending-in' was context-dependent, with a sense of being welcomed and fitting-in applying to certain domains and in certain situations but not necessarily in others. It argues that migration fosters particular cultural attitudes and practices amongst both migrants and hosts as social identities are produced and reproduced, changed and challenged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper outlines the recent history of LGBT psychology and psychotherapy in the United Kingdom, focusing on key publications, and the current terrain, highlighting similarities and differences between the UK and the US contexts. The paper is divided into four sections: the first focuses on the early development of the field in the late 1960s. The second section explores the 1980s--a decade that witnessed the publication of two key texts that had a strong influence on the development of the field and, in particular, on the development of critical and discursive approaches. The third section details the rapid changes that occurred in the 1990s including the establishment of a Lesbian and Gay Psychology Section within the British Psychological Society. The final section considers the current terrain and the similarities and differences in the theoretical commitments of researchers and practitioners working in the UK and in the US. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The attribute focus in engineering education now adopted by the engineering education accrediting bodies of the US, UK and Australia is based on meeting the assumed needs of professional practice. It is associated with an increasing expectation by employers of work-ready graduates rather than relying on subsequent work-based learning and experience to develop many of the essential professional practice attributes. Yet the scope of the mechanical engineering profession is broad and views of practitioners contributing to debate on attribute requirements are largely influenced by their own often unique professional formation. In addition, the formative development of the profession in Australia has been significantly influenced by 19th and 20th century UK and US practices, although historically the industrial profile of Australia has been strikingly different. An analysis of current industry distribution of Australian, UK and US mechanical engineers presented in this paper shows continuing, although less marked, differences. To develop a clearer perception of the profession in Australia, its educational formation, and operational environment, this paper provides a concise study of the formative development of the profession, and presents a breakdown of the industry sectors in which they are currently employed. The effects of momentous global changes in engineering employment and formation over recent decades are also discussed. Recent changes in engineering employment have included major structural changes to organisations, accelerating technical and educational developments and mounting societal expectations making it imperative that attributes be attuned to the new engineering paradigm as increasing demands are placed on our graduates. This paper provides an essential foundation for ongoing debate and analysis of attribute needs related to this broadly based engineering discipline. Although presented from an Australian perspective, many issues discussed are applicable worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To whatever extent the Labour Party adopted Keynesian economic policies before the Second World War it is easy to assume that Keynes and his ideas provided the benchmark — especially for reformers, perhaps also those of more traditionalist persuasion. Yet this paper shows how little Keynes featured in Labour's deliberations during the 1930s. It does so chiefly by an examination of public debates at annual party conferences and by analyses of the works of certain figures often thought to have engaged with Keynesian ideas before the war — both among the leading lights and the up and coming generation. Labour did not so much openly accept or reject Keynes as to proceed with precious little acknowledgement — even when the party or elements within it did tread a recognisably Keynesian path. Only to a limited extent can this relative neglect be explained by Keynes' own bearing towards Labour. Much more does it tell us about the Labour Party. The concluding section of the paper considers some possible explanations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this position paper, we explore psychoanalytic and psycho-social interventions in communities. We start by looking at some of the historical developments in the United Kingdom of psychoanalytically informed professional practice and the way in which various strategies have developed for taking psychoanalysis into the community. We then go on to examine contemporary examples of this work in Bulgaria and South Africa, which the authors of this paper are involved in; these interweave with themes around HIV/AIDS, gender, masculinity, class and ethnicity. We conclude by offering some reflections about the relationship between psychoanalysis, practice and community intervention in which we ask a set of critical questions that we hope will stimulate debate.Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society (2006) 11, 199–216. doi:10.1057/palgrave.pcs.2100084 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing number of volunteers in the heritage sector indicates a desire for a leisure experience by pursuing a subject interest with like-minded people. Millar and others have suggested that volunteers are the ‘ultimate frequent visitors’, and as the day visitor market for museums and heritage attractions declines, this paper offers the repositioning of ‘heritage visiting’ from day visits to longer term connections with particular heritage attractions via volunteering. It draws on Stebbins’s concept of serious leisure as a way of reading museum volunteering as a leisure practice and argues that museum volunteering is a way of practising heritage as leisure that is ‘self-generated’, with museum volunteers active in constructing their own identities. According to the concept of ‘serious leisure’, museum volunteers become part of a social world inhabited by those knowledgeable about heritage and history. The paper concludes by examining the adequacy of Stebbins’s P-A-P system for analysing the power relations between museum professionals and volunteers in the museum social world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the use and abuse of historical method in the field of housing studies, with specific reference to predictions about the future shape of social housing in Britain. It reflects on the debates about council housing in the early 1990s and sets these against subsequent policy developments. The paper suggests that this exercise reveals some shortcomings in dominant paradigms within housing studies, such as the misreading and misrepresentation of tenants' responses and reactions; the over-emphasis on consumption in assessing processes of housing sector change; the neglect of increasing spatial differentiation in housing markets across Britain; and the failure to appreciate the causes behind increasing volatility in some local housing markets. The paper argues for a more nuanced historical sensibility and a more adventurous methodology when forecasting the future direction of housing policies and the future characteristics of housing systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To introduce the theme of this special issue which contains a selection of papers presented at the Association for History and Computing UK (AHC-UK) annual conference in 2004. Design/methodology/approach - The role of the AHC in the UK is described and the reasons for choosing the theme of the 2004 conference, Recasting the Past: Digital Histories, are outlined along with the original call for papers. Findings - The contributors to this issue come from a wide geographic area and reflect the delegates at the conference by being archivists, historians, librarians and researchers. Originality/value - Provides an introduction to the special issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on the outcome from a project that has developed a GIS-based procedure lo capture digital boundaries for the small spatial units used in the British Population Census in 1981, and for the geographically comparable units connecting back with the previous enumeration in 1971. 1981 census geography was originally recorded as linear and textual annotations on paper base maps that were subsequently microfilmed. Four methods involving varying degrees of automation for capturing digital representations of these census units from the scanned microfilm imagery are evaluated. Details presented are in the context of British census geography before digital capture of small census units became routine, but the evaluation of the methods and the final procedure cover issues that are generally applicable in situations where the capture of historical mapping is attempted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to show how changes in the approach to the delivery, management and techniques of municipal engineering in the UK have evolved and, in turn, influenced political and professional skills and policies. It will consider how greater sophistication, integration and adoption of a more holistic approach by professionals within government and changes in the accountability of politicians and the democratic process are leading to a broader definition of the role of the municipal engineer in the UK. The paper will also suggest how individuals, professional institutions and employers can work towards the skills and knowledge required by a modern municipal engineer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The papers in this volume arose from a conference organised by The Association for Industrial Archaeology (AIA) in Nottingham in June 2004, with the support of English Heritage, which had the explicit intention of formulating a research framework for industrial archaeology in the 21st century. Most have been written by those professionally involved in archaeology, which in itself indicates the massive step forward that industrial archaeology has taken in the last half-century from its beginnings as a largely volunteer movement. The recent designation of British World Heritage Sites such as Blaenavon in South Wales, New Lanark in Scotland, two textile-based sites in England, the Derwent Valley of Derbyshire and Saltaire in West Yorkshire, and most recently Liverpool — Maritime Mercantile City, has emphasised the international importance of Britain's contribution to the processes of industrialisation. For all these sites, the designations have taken account not just of the technological innovations which many of them represent but also the social context of the process of industrialisation, expressed through settlement patterns and material culture. The invited papers at the Nottingham conference were explicitly intended to explore this social agenda, which is of paramount importance in our efforts to examine the process of transition from an agrarian to an industrial society through the archaeological remains of the early modern period. This volume contains the results of that decision and is intended to demonstrate how far industrial archaeology (or whatever we choose to call it) is now a fully recognised element within mainstream archaeology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the increasingly popular research area of 'living history' - the presentation of an historical period by live actors who portray and 'live out' the conditions of a particular time and place, largely through public events and other forms of staged reconstruction. While the topic might be analysed from various approaches, the paper endeavours to focus upon 'living history' largely as a 'serious leisure' pursuit, enquiring as to who participates and why. The paper is founded upon a survey of one re-enactment society in the UK which depicts the Civil War in the USA. As one of the largest of such societies, the American Civil War Society (ACWS) not only provides a fine example of 'living history', but one largely outside of its immediate historical and cultural context. The paper argues that re-enacted events, certainly in the case of a male-dominated 'living history' society, are not primarily an educational exercise. Rather, they are meaningful for the individuals involved, sustaining and enhancing their life-style interests and a 'serious' hobby through camaraderie, collective involvement, and a subjective understanding of authenticity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an introductory survey of the evolution of multiculturalism in Britain and Germany over the past two centuries. The historical approach argues that the main determinants of difference between these nation states lie in their long-term traditional attitudes towards immigrants and ethnic minorities. It focuses upon the patterns of immigration into Britain and Germany as well as the differing imperial traditions, which have both left differing legacies. An equally important historical factor has been the legal position of aliens in the two states, in which, until very recently, Britain adopted a policy of ;MS solis, whereas Germany pursued one of jus sanguinis. The paper then examines the realities of multiculturalism in the two states. Due primarily to the historical traditions of nationality legislation, immigrants and their descendants in Britain have come to play a more important role in recent British history than their contemporaries in Germany, particularly if we examine their role in the political process and in popular culture. While the conclusion reiterates the differences, it also stresses that we should not view Britain and Germany as the opposite ends of the multicultural spectrum, as both are modem liberal democracies with significant ethnic minority populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is intended as an aid to those researching the history of Quaker involvement in industry and commerce, with a regional focus on Yorkshire .A selection of archives of businesses founded and run by Quakers, as well as of family and personal papers of Friends in business are surveyed here. Both the historical context and a summary of the surviving sources are given for each collection surveyed, with details of where the material is held. Examples have been chosen to represent the Quaker contribution to particular trades and industries, and in some cases, to promote collections which have recently been catalogued or are little known. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The creation of the UK motorway network in the last half of the twentieth century facilitated a dramatic improvement in the mobility of people and goods, and contributed greatly to the prosperity we enjoy today. Drawing on material collected by the Motorway Archive Trust, this paper begins with examples of advances in procedures for designing motorway alignments and provision of earthworks before moving on to pavement and bridge design; finally there is consideration of how the motorway system is operated, both in normal traffic conditions and at roadworks. Overall, the paper aims to provide an insight into engineering problems encountered and overcome in the building of the motorways through a selection of examples that, though necessarily limited by space, are broadly representative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper briefly outlines health advisor L.W. Harrison's contribution to venereology or genitourinary (GU) medicine, and shows how his principles of good practice fulfil many of the principles of clinical governance. The paper then outlines some general principles of clinical governance and indicate how they relate to GU medicine. Harrison set up the specialty on a firm foundation of clinical excellence that fulfils many of the latest requirements. He would have been thrilled to see how the specialty has broadened and would have applauded the drive for excellence. However, he might have been concerned over the literature on clinical governance, reminding that the pursuit is excellence of clinical care for the patient, and that clinical governance must not become an end in itself.

R.H. Tawney (1880–1962), a leading English economic historian and prominent socialist, was vigorously involved in educational reconstruction during the Second World War. For Tawney, the war was a war for social democracy. His ideals of social democracy formed a basis for his case for Public (independent) School reform and free secondary education for all. Despite this, the connection between Tawney’s ideals and his perspectives on educational issues has not been addressed fully by historians and thus there has been a lack of a proper explanation for his often criticised sympathy for the public schools and his indifference towards the multilateral school. Hence, this paper aims to re-examine the link between them in greater depth. It concludes that, according to Tawney’s ideals of social democracy, the abolition of the public schools was not necessary for the establishment of a democratic educational system. Moreover, Tawney did not launch an attack on the tripartite system proposed by the Norwood Report of 1943 since it was not against his ideal of equality as long as different secondary schools were equal in quality and status. Equality, he believed, must be advanced through the raising of the school leaving age to 16 and the abolition of fees in all secondary schools. Thus, he laid more emphasis on the school leaving age and tuition fees than on the multilateral school. In brief, on various issues pertaining to secondary education, Tawney’s opinions and actions were deeply grounded in his distinctive ideals of social democracy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The first mobile phone networks were launched in the UK in 1985. In the 30 years that have elapsed since then, the mobile phone has evolved from an expensive device owned by the few to a mass-market smartphone that is now regarded as an essential part of modern-day life. Behind the scenes, the mobile networks have undergone four major technology evolutions that have transformed their functionality from providing a basic telephone service to offering very high-speed connectivity for data applications. Yet, much of the heritage of this relatively young but transformational mobile technology is poorly documented and in great danger of being completely lost. Each new generation of mobile network replaces and ultimately erases the evidence of its predecessor. Equally, manufacturers are so focused on the release of their next handset that this leaves little scope or motivation for preserving and recording older models. The perception remains that the mobile phone is a new and young technology which is still considered by many to be a recent phenomenon. This results in a very casual attitude to the preservation of cellular mobile communications heritage, hence raising the significant risk that no suitable historical records will be available for future generations. This paper therefore begins to address this deficit by examining, through a UK perspective, two key but highly visible parts of the mobile phone story, namely, the cellular radio site installations that adorn roadsides, rooftops and hillsides and the mobile phones themselves as important historical artefacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article challenges traditional accounts of the 1946 Cold War Crisis in Iran by moving beyond Soviet–American confrontation to focus on British policy. In contrast to the United States, Britain was a major stake-holding power in Iran due to the valuable holdings of the Anglo–Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). By comparing the reactions of the AIOC and Foreign Office, continuity between the events of the 1946 Crisis and later developments in the Mosaddegh premiership becomes apparent. Soviet interference in Azerbaijan prompted great concern from representatives in Iran, but the central Foreign Office pursued a more cautious policy. Only concerns relating to the growth of domestic Iranian communism in the form of the Tudeh Party and the threat this entailed to the British concession prompted the Foreign Office and AIOC to take measures rendering them partially complicit in the internationalization of Iranian politics, setting an important precedent for future action. This article evaluates the policy-making process and its impact on Anglo–Iranian relations by utilizing records from the UK National Archives, British Petroleum Archive and diplomatic personal papers. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

English painter Barbara Bodichon received a dynamic home education, consisting of engaging lessons, reading sessions, family discussions, sketching excursions, and trips at home and abroad. As an adult, Bodichon led a nomadic life, living between Algeria and England and travelling across Europe and America. Seeking to unpack travelling and travel letters as sources of learning, this paper studies Bodichon’s correspondence as epistolary articulations of herBildung(self-cultivation). It argues that, conforming toBildung’s idea of forging one’s individuality in interaction with the world, her travelling provided her with a variety of settings through which she extended towards the unknown and incorporated it into her sense of being. In turn, letters functioned as forums where she made sense of encountering the difference through which she individualised her subjectivity. Notwithstanding, a revised reading ofBildungpermits teasing out to what extent Bodichon’s self-cultivation was developed at the expense of certain social categories. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The History Workshop movement took its stance on the democratisation of history making, becoming notorious for its exuberant gatherings and impassioned ‘histories from below’. At the centre of the early Workshop was the British historian Raphael Samuel, who has been described as the personification of its intellectual and ethical politics. This paper examines Samuel’s role in the Workshop arguing that his distinctive intellectual personality was critical in shaping its early form and ethos. Drawing on a biographical approach, it explores the development of this persona over the course of his formative years. It argues that Samuel’s life history provides an insight into the renewed appeal of libertarian ideas in post-war British radical political and educational thought and that as an individual he illuminates the application of these ideas to the social role of the historian-educator. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

David Millon argued in a 1989 article that medieval and early modern legal historians had been beguiled into supposing that civil litigation in these periods was decided in accordance with the ‘official’ legal doctrine found in law reports, plea roll arguments and Inns of Court readings when in reality their outcome was generally determined by juries exercising their own normative discretion in reaching their verdicts. This paper challenges this pessimistic conclusion, at least for the period around 1300. It demonstrates from evidence drawn from plea rolls and mainly manuscript law reports the degree of judicial control over juries exercised within the courtroom and the way in which jury verdicts were considered, and not just accepted, by courts. It also argues that the application of substantive legal rules by judges for the decision of litigation was a more important phenomenon than Millon supposed and that legal rules were also regularly invoked and applied in the preliminary pleading in cases and thereby shaped and determined the issues which went for jury decision. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper analyses the controversy that arose when a monumental bronze nude statue of Achilles was unveiled at Hyde Park Corner (London) in 1822 as a monument to the Duke of Wellington and his army. The neoclassical statue (made by Richard Westmacott) perfectly embodied the 'modern male stereotype'. According to historian George Mosse, this masculine image was a powerful and stable symbol of nineteenth- and twentieth-century bourgeois societies. Intended by the commanders and artist as just such a symbol, the statue in practice was unable to express these high ideals. Ever since its unveiling, the statue has elicited laughter and ridicule. The uneasiness created by male public nudity is an aspect that Mosse missed in his history of masculine imaginary, in which he focused on certain moments of 'spectacular' masculinity in modern Western history. Ultimately, the failure of Westmacott's Achilles can best be understood from the well-known feminist framework on the gendered 'economy of the gaze', a framework that is all too often absent in the historiography on masculinities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the rising use of commercial medical assistance in early modern England. We measure individual consumption of medical and nursing services using a new dataset of debts at death between ca. 1670 and ca. 1790. Levels of consumption of medical services were high and stable in London from the 1680s. However, we find rapid growth in the provinces, in both the likelihood of using medical assistance and the sums spent on it. The structure of medical services also shifted, with an increase in "general practice," particularly by apothecaries. The expansion in medical services diffused from London and was motivated by changing preferences, not wealth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article revisits one of the most significant questions in the historiography of British West Indian slavery and abolition. It examines the argument that the relatively weak state of the British West Indian economy from the 1780s onward was the main reason why Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807. In confronting this question of decline, the article analyzes the largest and most important slave plantation economy – Jamaica – during the early eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Using newly generated indicators such as total factor productivity and national income, the paper constructs a case for the dynamism and efficiency of the plantation system in Jamaica right up to abolition in 1807. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]