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In this study, we examine which student and school characteristics predict students' perceptions of the school climate. Our data come from a survey administered to nearly 3,000 students in grades 4-12 in 18 charter schools throughout the country. The survey asks students about their perceptions of seven distinct aspects of the school's culture and climate: cultural and linguistic competence, learning strategies, rigorous expectations, school safety, sense of belonging, student engagement, and teacher-student relationships. We find substantial "within"-school variation in student perceptions of the school climate, which is explained in part by differences in student race/ethnicity and grade level. This finding suggests that among our diverse sample of charter schools, school climate surveys may be better suited to capture group-level differences in student experiences within a school as opposed to school-level differences. Although there is far less variation in student perceptions of school climate "between" schools, school composition, as measured by the racial/ethnic diversity of the school, is a meaningful predictor of student perceptions of the school's cultural and linguistic competence, student engagement, and sense of belonging. While further analyses are needed, our findings suggest that schools with more diverse student bodies may be better able to foster positive student experiences.

Essay exams offer many benefits for instructors who seek to vary their assessment methods and engage students in critical discourse, yet they also pose many challenges and require thoughtful construction and evaluation. The author provides an extensive overview of the literature to illuminate best practices for designing and assessing effective essay prompts, includes examples, and offers suggestions for preparing students for success.

Students often fail to write effective synthesis essays that compare multiple sources across common intersecting categories. Instead, they compose flawed essays that focus primarily on one source and then add a few ideas from other sources (patchwriting); report ideas from all sources in a disjointed fashion (tag-all writing); or draw from one source after another without comparison (separate-representation writing). Effective synthesis writing depends on three strategies: selecting important information from each source, arranging the selected information in a graphic organizer for easy comparison, and connecting information from the various sources in a comparative way. The authors report on an established teaching and learning system called SOAR (Select, Organize, Associate, and Regulate) and its newly investigated impact on synthesis writing in the two studies that they conducted. In the first study, students provided with SOAR supplements (a graphic organizer, association prompts, and a regulation checklist) composed essays that contained more information, better synthesis organization, and more intertextual relationships than did essays from students who were not using SOAR supplements. In the second study, SOAR-trained students composed better organized synthesis essays than students who used their own preferred strategies. Across studies, students found SOAR helpful for synthesis writing and reported that they would be likely to use SOAR for future writing assignments. The authors conclude with an example of how to teach students to use SOAR when they write.

Spatial visualization--the ability to mentally imagine and manipulate objects--has frequently been measured using the Paper Folding Test (PFT). In this task, participants view diagrams of a paper being folded and a hole being punched. They then identify the resulting punch pattern. Although task instructions promote mentally unfolding the paper, the extent to which people follow this spatial visualization strategy is unknown. The present work assesses hypothesized PFT solution strategies and their relation to problem attributes. Accuracy was impacted by the interaction between fold types, linear mixed models revealed greater use of simple heuristics compared to the suggested unfolding. Furthermore, most participants used a single strategy but simple heuristics were more often used than unfolding. Given this, we recommend redesigning the PFT to utilize the prevalence of strategy use to assess individual differences. [This is the in press version of an article published in "Personality and Individual Differences" (ISSN 0191-8869).]

Metacognition has increasingly been recognized as essential for learning. This paper defines metacognition, discusses its importance, and specifies how faculty can nurture it in students to promote positive learning outcomes. The paper then offers extensive examples based on two formats: (1) activities offered before, during, and after lessons or as ongoing assignments in an online course; and (2) quizzes and examinations (tests), whether multiple choice or essay, that can be analyzed for maximizing future performance.

Non-cognitive characteristics of students in four Southeast Asian countries -- Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Viet Nam -- were reviewed based on the PISA 2009, 2012, and 2015 data. Overall, students in this region demonstrated similarities with respect to their non-cognitive dispositions such as learning habits, approaches to learning, motivation for school subject matters and self-beliefs about their abilities. The non-cognitive characteristics that were most prevalent in the region included enjoyment and instrumental motivation to learn, which were evidenced by the indices of "intrinsicmotivation for mathematics" (INTMAT), "instrumental motivation for mathematics" (INSTMOT), "enjoyment in learning of science" (JOYSCIE), and "instrumental motivation in learning science" (INSTSCIE). However, these variables were not strong predictors of student achievement in this region. The review also revealed that the best non-cognitive predictors of student achievement were metacognitive awareness (METASUM and UNDREM) for reading achievement; self-efficacy, self-concept, and anxiety (MATHEFF, SCMAT, and ANXMAT) for mathematics achievement; and environmental awareness and epistemological beliefs (ENVAWARE and EPIST) for science achievement. These variables were also the best predictors, on average, across all PISA participants and economies. However, some region-specific non-cognitive predictors were also noted. These were "intrinsic motivation" (INTMAT) in Malaysia; "perseverance" (PERSEV) in Thailand; and "mathematics intentions" (MATINTFC)in Viet Nam. Overall, the similarities found in the non-cognitive characteristics among Southeast Asian students suggest that (a) regional collaboration in designing the educational strategies may be beneficial and that (b) an implementation of regional questionnaires in future PISA surveys may be useful to gain an in-depth understanding of achievement-related factors in this region.

Building on an earlier 2008 summary prepared for OECD by Marlene Scardamalia and Carl Bereiter, this paper by Gesa S. E. van den Broek provides a more extensive discussion of approaches described as "research based innovation." "Fostering Communities of Learning" is a constructivist approach in which teachers help students discover important curricular concepts. "Learning by Design" is an inquiry-based science learning programme based on case-based reasoning models. "Central Conceptual Structures" (CCS) theory describes developmental changes in children's thinking and what is needed to progress through stages in specific cognitive domains. "Web-based Inquiry Science Environment" (WISE) is an internet-based adaptive learning environment building on the principles of knowledge integration. "Cognitive Tutors and ACT-R theory" are intelligent adaptive software programmes that provide students with scaffolded instruction and feedback. "Direct Instruction" aims to accelerate learning through clear scripted direct instruction by the teacher and scaffolded practice aimed at student involvement and error reduction. "Higher Order Thinking Skills" (HOTS) is for disadvantaged students especially to engage in Socratic dialogues about ideas and strategies to solve computer game-based problems. "Knowledge Building" is a constructivist teaching approach centred on building knowledge and creating knowledge communities. (Contains 1 figure and 5 boxes.)

This study explores the relationship between regional people's identities, their experiences of learning, and engagement with learning. Fifteen adult learners describe those experiences of education and the significant impact of their learning identity on their engagement with learning in the long term. The study was based in a regional area of the Northern Territory and includes people from different age groups and backgrounds including Indigenous and non-Indigenous people, long-term residents and migrants from other places. The participants describe their learning identity as it relates to their identity as individuals and members of local, family and global communities. Drawing on interviews with students in regional and rural areas of the Northern Territory, this paper looks at their participation in education and training. The paper suggests that learning strategies which acknowledge rural learners' identities may be successful in engaging regional and remote learners in education and training. [This work has been produced by the author, who received an National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) New Researcher Award to present their research.]

One way of helping students with learning disabilities and other struggling learners become independent life-long learners is to teach them how to use learning strategies in effective and efficient ways. Learning strategy instruction is instruction in how to learn and perform in academic environments such that positive outcomes result. Teachers must know how to teach students to use learning strategies so that students have the opportunity to succeed in today's schools and meet rigorous standards. The objectives of this issue paper are as follows: (1) Describe learning strategies and provide a brief review of some of the literature that demonstrates that learning strategy instruction can effectively transform ineffective learners into effective learners; (2) Explain the kinds of knowledge and skills teachers must acquire to be competent learning strategy instructors; and (3) Make recommendations related to teacher training programs that specifically address learning strategy instruction. Appended are: (1) Innovation Configuration for Learning Strategy Instruction; and (2) Additional Resources for Professors, Professional Developers, and Coaches. (Contains 46 resources.)

Teacher preparation to deliver inclusive services to students with disabilities is increasingly important because of changes in law and policy emphasizing student access to, and achievement in, the general education curriculum. Inclusion of students with disabilities in general education environments has a long history in special education law; however, recent developments have markedly enhanced the implementation of inclusive services as a means to improve the educational achievement and other outcomes of students with disabilities. This Issue Paper presents a brief review of the legal and policy foundations and best professional practices for inclusive services. It also provides a discussion of key components of inclusive services that should be incorporated in teacher preparation at the preservice and inservice levels. In addition, it offers an Inclusive Services Innovation Configuration, which can be used to evaluate general and special education teacher preparation and professional development programs. Appendix includes: Inclusive Services Innovation Configuration.

This paper's charge is to lay out the central ideas about learning and teaching that run throughout contemporary educational discourse. It details nine concepts of learning, knowledge, and teaching that have formed the basis for recent education reform. Specifically, this report explores the nine concepts that emphasize "active construction of meaning," individual and collaborative work, use of student diversity as a resource for learning, and emphasis on both basic and advanced knowledge and skills. These learning goals make teaching more challenging, as teachers must assume increasingly varied roles, share responsibility with students, and work continually to improve their practice. Tools for instructional improvement are appended. (Contains 1 table.)

Researchers define learning in many different ways, but all agree learning causes a permanent change in human behavior. The purpose of this DETC Occasional Paper is to illustrate how the principles of learning can facilitate the design of effective instruction. The authors first describe the principles of learning (contiguity, repetition, reinforcement, and social-cultural principles of learning) and types of learning and outcome assessment; then discuss outcome assessment through grading rubrics and provide examples of rubrics for use in evaluating writing and discussion board posting. (Contains 2 tables.)

This study of social capital employs data from the Longitudinal Study of Adult Learning (LSAL), funded by the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL) and conducted at Portland State University to increase understanding of the learning process of adults with limited formal education. It provides longitudinal data on how people continue learning in multiple contexts--through formal adult education programs and in their daily lives. This paper is presented in two sections. The first is a theoretical exploration of the intersections of critical literacy, adult learning, and social capital theories. The intent of this discussion is to introduce key concepts from multiple disciplines and develop a synthetic model of social capital influences on lifelong learning (SCILL) in which adults construct their social environment and the discourses that influence their learning strategies. The second section empirically tests a piece of the SCILL Model related to the structural and discursive dimensions of social capital, using data from the first wave of the LSAL. Multiple measures of social capital are detailed. The author argues that in addition to the structural dimension of social capital, local discourse generated through interaction is an interpretive dimension of social capital. The discussion ties the empirical and theoretical elements, offering implications for the study of adult education participation in adult education for research on social capital. Appendices include: (1) Longitudinal Study of Adult Literacy Study Design; (2) Instrument Items from LSAL Wave 1; (3) Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Lifelong Learning; (4) Tables of Descriptive Statistics and Univariate Analyses of Indicators; (5) Items Parameters in Final Models; and (6) Model Calibration. (Contains 18 tables, 3 figures, and 6 footnotes.)

This paper describes two approaches to the evaluation of student learning skills and learning styles: the "One Minute Paper" and classroom observation of students in cooperative learning groups. The One Minute Paper developed, by R. Weaver and H. Cottrell (1985), is a form completed by students at the end of class that asks students to indicate the most significant thing they learned that day and whether they have remaining questions. Completing this exercise encourages students to reflect and review, and it gives teachers immediate feedback on student understanding and problems. The One Minute Paper can be varied by asking students to work in pairs or groups and review each other's answers. Cooperative learning activities provide teachers with opportunities to observe students interacting. One way to approach classroom observation is to look for a hierarchy of abilities similar to Bloom's taxonomy. In this way, the stage of development and learning style of each student can be determined. By the time a test is taken, the instructor knows who will perform well and who will not. (SLD)

This paper examines the possible role of grammar throughout Key Stages 3 and 4 in the modern language curriculum where communication is the central tenet. It also discusses how total or virtually total use of target language (German) in the classroom can help deal with the dichotomy of grammar versus communication and bring about an integrated approach, marrying form and function. The paper asserts that grammar can be an integral part of the communicative approach, using total target language skills as the link. It highlights: what grammar means; grammar's role; planning for the inclusion of grammar in the modern languages curriculum; grammar's place in the communicative approach; grammar should always be second to meaning and in context; different learner needs; language chunks versus breakdown; the high or low value of language to the learner; modified language; focusing on form; target language versus mother tongue; the extent to which grammatical terminology should be used; when and how to give corrective feedback; rule discovery by the learner; grammar notes made by learners; learning styles and strategies; revisiting, refinement, and extension; a place for grammar in the four skill areas; a departmental approach; and the department's role. The paper concludes that grammar does have a place in the communicative approach. (Contains 12 references.) (SM)

This paper discusses what is known about learning to date by emphasizing "connections" as necessary for learning. Knowledge about these connections can be placed into four categories: (1) neurological connections; (2) cognitive connections; (3) social connections; and (4) experiential connections. In terms of neurological connections, sensory input is crucial for newborns, but as long as the brain continues to be stimulated, our brains continue to make connections. Regarding cognitive connections, it has become apparent that people's minds think and understand things in terms of schemata. Therefore, it is easier to learn more complex concepts that fit into existing schemata than it is to learn something completely new. Deeper learning gets placed into schemata with time. Cognitive strategies can be broken down into cognitive learning and metacognitive strategies. These strategies are broken down and detailed in the document. Social connections refer to the interaction between the internal processes of the mind and how the mind grasps the external realities of knowledge. Making social connections between the various players at institutions of higher education may be an innovative strategy used in the near future. The last category is that of experiential connections, or making connections between experience and learning. Contains 28 references. (AMA)

Remedial mathematics has taken several forms over the years--across the nation, within departments, and among mathematics instructors. There is a growing debate over the effectiveness of remedial courses in relationship to eventual student matriculation, which increases institution funding. The use of technology, real-life problems and projects, self-paced study, as well as early diagnoses are critical issues facing those involved in remediation at the community college. This paper focuses on technology, success rates of remediated students, and how to better prepare students for college-level mathematics courses. One key part of the effectiveness of technology in the classroom is student-teacher interaction. This human interaction must continue as the main form of formal instruction with technology acting as a conduit for this to take place efficiently. This report addresses the issue of finding better ways to get students coming out of developmental courses better prepared for college-level work. It states that the focus on rote memorization of formulas, algorithms, and rules is a hindrance to students at the developmental level as they impede progress towards higher-order thinking required in most college-level courses. The paper concludes with the statement that proper placement of students through the ministering of placement tests into appropriate courses, be they developmental or otherwise, is essential to student success. (VWC)

The Ontario Industrial Workers' research site offered a basic analysis of issues relevant to the Prior Learning Assessment and Recognition (PLAR) research and the labor education community. Project goals revolved around the need to examine development and applications of a new PLAR instrument, the Skills and Knowledge Profile (SKP), which is uniquely suited to examine the types of strategies, practices, and capacities that working class participants typically use. Primarily qualitative data from interviews were analyzed. SKP exhibited "situated" dimensions which, from a worker's standpoint, largely determined the perceived effectiveness of the instrument. Social organization of skills, knowledge, and learning processes were seen as a significant issue in the context of working class learning strategies, workers' practices, and progressive application of PLAR instruments such as SKP. In discussions of PLAR, SKP, and labor unions, notions of class consciousness were intertwined with informal learning relations. Intersection of class consciousness and development of critical views on the power relations among forms and conceptions of skill and knowledge led to the notion of a Workers' Knowledge Bank. In in-depth discussions, workers indicated the practical use/value was embedded within the process of administration itself and SKP provoked new understandings of one's own skills. (Appendixes include 94 references and interview schedules.) (YLB)

A comparative study of the impact of violence on immigrant women's learning was conducted among immigrant women of two communities in the Toronto area: the Spanish-speaking community and the Kurds. The two authors of the study each worked with one of the communities in which they had knowledge of the language. An in-depth, non-structured, conversational interview was used with 14 women of each group in order to document the life histories of these women as they experienced them. The Spanish-speaking women also participated in a workshop wherein they focused on learning about the law. All the women had been involved in violence, whether the mostly-domestic violence that the Spanish-speaking women had experienced or the political violence in which the Kurdish women or their husbands, sons, and brothers had participated. The study, reported separately for each group, found that the experience of violence places stress on the women that impedes their learning. The study also found that learning should be viewed as larger than just the learning of content--it includes learning to trust and act on their own behalf and take charge of their own learning. Some of the recommendations of the study included having peer-oriented learning groups to teach women about the legal system and the provision of legal materials in their native languages. (Contains 45 references.) (KC)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the roles of interest, knowledge, and learning strategies on recall within a specific subject domain at an early stage of learning. Students (n=17) at two levels in a postgraduate music therapy course were assessed for their levels of prior knowledge, interest, and the number of strategies they used to process information. They were presented with a video clip of a music therapy session and asked to recall as much as they could of what transpired. The following week they were asked again to complete further questionnaires and to recall whatever they could from the video. Recalls at times 1 and 2 were correlated 0.078. Knowledge correlated 0.206 with recall 1, whereas interest correlated -0.004 and the number of strategies correlated -0.371. On the second occasion, knowledge, interest, and strategies correlated 0.059, 0.419, and 0.364 respectively with the amount of recall. Results fail to support the knowledge component in a model of domain learning in music therapy but support the minor influence of individual interest and strategies together with a social disposition that correlated 0.324 with recall at time 2. (Contains 7 tables and 13 references.) (Author/SLD)