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We study the effect of paternity leave on early child development. We collect sur-vey data on 5,000 children under age six in Spain and exploit several extensions of paternity leave that took place between 2017 and 2021. We follow a differences-in-discontinuities research design, based on the date of birth of each child and using cohorts born in non-reform years as controls. We show that the extensions led to significant increases in the length of leave taken by fathers, without affecting that of mothers, thus increasing parental time at home in the first year after birth. Eligibility for four additional weeks of paternity leave led to a significant 12 percentage-point increase in the fraction of children with developmental delays. We provide evidence for two potential mechanisms. First, children exposed to longer paternity leave spend less time alone with their mother, and more time with their father, during their first year of life. Second, treated children use less formal childcare. Our results suggest that paternity leave replaces higher-quality modes of early care. We conclude that the effects of parental leave policies on children depend crucially on the quality of parental versus counterfactual modes of childcare. [Funding for this report was provided by the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) and the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.]

We provide the first causal evidence of the returns to maternal educational curricula on offspring's health at birth. Educational programs that aim to deliver more general knowledge may potentially improve women's earning potential and maternal prenatal investment by increasing the portability of skills across occupations and improving women's ability to make informed decisions about fertility options and health behavior. We study the impacts of a comprehensive educational reform that postponed students' curriculum choices and integrated more general education into the high school system on infant health outcomes. Using a dose-response difference-in-differences (DiD) model research design applied to linked population registries, we find that the reform led to a significant reduction in the incidence of very low birth weight (less than 1,500 grams) and very preterm birth (less than 33 gestation weeks). Overall, the reform's positive effects on infant health at birth seem to be driven by increased mothers' labor market opportunities and better family planning, rather than increased ability to avoid risky behaviours or increased women's earnings via different occupational choices or assortative mating. [This report received additional funding from Fundación Ramón Areces and the Spanish National Research Plan 2017-2020.]

We provide evidence from a randomized controlled trial on the effectiveness of a novel, 100-percent online math tutoring program, targeted at secondary school students from highly disadvantaged neighborhoods. The intensive, eight-week-long program was delivered by qualified math teachers in groups of two students during after-school hours. The intervention significantly increased standardized test scores (+0.26 SD) and end-of-year math grades (+0.48 SD), while reducing the probability of repeating the school year. The intervention also raised aspirations, as well as self-reported effort at school.

This synthesis report is based on a survey carried out during 2022 with Cedefop's reporting network ReferNet. It makes an important contribution to understanding the magnitude of early leaving from VET (ELVET) in those European countries where relevant data are available, and the mechanisms and support measures countries employ to measure and monitor the phenomenon at national and regional levels. The report puts special focus on the main factors leading to early leaving from initial VET as reported by EU Member States, Norway and Iceland. It details the support measures teachers, trainers, school principals and companies providing work-based learning received to overcome the challenges society faced due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine. This research is part of Cedefop's pioneering work within the VET for youth team to support policy-makers and VET practitioners tackling early leaving from VET in Europe. For more than a decade, Cedefop has led research, promoted peer learning through its policy learning fora, and developed and managed online toolkits to benefit learners at risk of dropping out, early leavers from VET and young NEETs. The VET toolkit for tackling early leaving and the VET toolkit for empowering NEETs offer a platform of intervention approaches, good practices and interactive tools designed for both policy-makers and VET teachers and trainers. The community of ambassadors tackling early leaving from VET, created and coordinated by Cedefop since 2017, plays a vital role in enriching and disseminating the toolkit resources. The findings of this survey feed into Cedefop's project on Tackling early leaving from VET. It aims to support EU Member States and the European Commission in the implementation of the Council recommendation on pathways to school success (Council of the European Union, 2022) and the achievement of Education and training 2030 strategic target to lower the rates of early leaving from education and training (Council of the European Union, 2021).

This report describes how entrepreneurship competence is embedded in vocational education and training (VET) in Spain. It complements existing knowledge with examples of methods, tools and approaches that can help policy-makers, VET providers and other stakeholders build better entrepreneurial learning ecosystems. The report is based on the research from Cedefop's study Entrepreneurship competence in VET. It is part of a series of eight national case studies (Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Latvia, Austria, Finland and Sweden) and the forthcoming final report. [Dmitrijs Kulšs was responsible for the publication and research conducted under the project. Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini Srl SB (FGB) was contracted for research and services.]

With the rise of polarization and extremism, the question of how best to transmit civic virtues across generations is more acute than ever. In this paper, we test the hypothesis that schools can be the place for this transmission by empowering students and gathering them around concrete and democratically chosen objectives. We draw on an RCT implemented in a large sample of middle schools in three European countries. The evaluated program leads students to carry out collective citizenship projects in their immediate communities under the supervision of teachers trained in student-centered teaching methods. The program significantly increases student altruism, their political self-efficacy as well as the quality of their relationship with their classmates and their respect for the rules of school life (less sanctions and absenteeism). In all three countries, the benefits are greater for students with the highest level of altruism and interest in politics at baseline. Investments made at an early age appear to be complement to those made during adolescence for the production of civic virtues.

Principals (policy makers) have debated the progress in U.S. student performance for a half century or more. Informing these conversations, survey agents have administered seven million psychometrically linked tests in math and reading in 160 waves to national probability samples of selected cohorts born between 1954 and 2007. This study is the first to assess consistency of results by agency. We find results vary by agent, but consistent with Flynn effects, gains are larger in math than reading, except for the most recent period. Non-whites progress at a faster pace. Socio-economically disadvantaged white, black, and Hispanic students make greater progress when tested in elementary school, but that advantage attenuates and reverses itself as students age. We discuss potential moderators.

The feedback between vocational education and training (VET) and the labour market can provide important input for the review and renewal of qualifications. A feedback loop that is based on learning outcomes helps provide deeper insights into what is required on the labour market, what is offered in training provisions and assessed at the end of a learning programme. The aim of this study is to contribute to strengthening the quality and relevance of qualifications and completing the feedback loop between education and the labour market. It examines methods of collecting data on the match/mismatch between qualifications and labour market requirements, including analysis of how achieved learning outcomes are applied and perceived in the labour market (for example methods of collecting the experience of employers with holders of these qualifications). This report addresses the following two questions: (1) which data already exist in the countries, providing insight into the relevance of qualifications to employees, employers and other labour market stakeholders?; and (2) how can survey methodology be designed to systematically capture the experiences and appreciations of employers as regards the content and profile of qualifications? To what extent, based on limited testing, can scalability of the methodology be achieved?

As a result of its direct link to the labour market, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) plays an important role in equipping the modern workforce with in-demand skills. This discussion paper aims to inspire the introduction of entrepreneurial learning in TVET towards a fully mainstreamed approach, whereby entrepreneurial learning is integrated into the role, function and delivery of TVET systems for the benefit of all learners. The paper provides insight into the different approaches to mainstreaming entrepreneurial learning and illustrates the contribution of the key pillars that make up the entrepreneurial learning ecosystem. This is supported by a series of practical examples from TVET systems around the world, illustrating how entrepreneurial learning is being transformed into reality by governments, TVET systems, communities, networks, institutions, teachers, trainers and TVET learners. This paper explores five elements of the entrepreneurial learning ecosystem: (1) Developing policy for entrepreneurial learning; (2) Curricula and pedagogies; (3) Supporting teachers and trainers; (4) Learning modes other than formal curricula; and (5) Career paths and start-ups.

This research paper is the fifth in a series produced as part of the Cedefop project The changing nature and role of VET (2016-18). Based on comparative analysis of labour force survey data from 2014, the report analyses the vocational effect on labour market and education outcomes, asking whether any advantages conferred by vocational qualifications in early career would be offset by disadvantages later in life. The report explores the functioning of the safety net and the diversion effects across countries, demonstrating how these vary considerably with the specific institutional structure of schooling and work-based training. The results indicate that VET graduates are potentially sacrificing the longer-term gains associated with further education in favour of short-term benefits. [This research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH and including the Danish Technological Institute, the Institute of Employment Research (University of Warwick), the Institute of International and Social Studies (Tallinn University) and Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is supporting the project as a subcontractor.]

In a highly competitive global landscape, occupations are transformed, new jobs are created and the skills needed for the labour market are constantly changing. European countries are looking at redefining VET [vocational education and training] to respond promptly to such challenges and take advantage of the opportunities ahead. They are reforming to modernise their VET systems and strengthen the relevance of their national qualifications in an international context. This publication explores national responses to globalisation in 15 countries and five economic sectors. It aims to understand how European and international initiatives help VET renewal across Europe. It shows how countries' reactions are embedded in their national traditions but also depend on their interactions with European, sectoral and multinational players that provide training and award qualifications. [The research was carried out by a consortium led by IBE Educational research institute and 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH.]

Differences in teacher quality are commonly cited as a key determinant of the huge international student performance gaps. However, convincing evidence on this relationship is still lacking, in part because it is unclear how to measure teacher quality consistently across countries. We use unique international assessment data to investigate the role of teacher cognitive skills as one main dimension of teacher quality in explaining student outcomes. Our main identification strategy exploits exogenous variation in teacher cognitive skills attributable to international differences in relative wages of nonteacher public sector employees. Using student-level test score data, we find that teacher cognitive skills are an important determinant of international differences in student performance. Results are supported by fixed-effects estimation that uses within-country between-subject variation in teacher skills.

This report analyses how learning supports labour market transitions and career changes of adult workers across five countries (Denmark, Germany, Spain, France and Italy). To make the most of career and labour market opportunities, individuals have to rely on their own resources and their agency but also know how to navigate the institutional context. To make successful labour market transitions, individuals need to have a sense of direction, they need to learn about opportunities, and they need to learn skills. Education and training has a special role in supporting adult workers in their careers, providing them with the competences, qualifications and, in some cases, with the self-confidence needed for successful transition. Guidance services tailored to individual needs can help individuals find appropriate career trajectories in their search for suitable job opportunities, and can foster relational, emotional, cognitive and practical learning. [This report is the result of a team effort. Cedefop is grateful to Alan Brown, Jenny Bimrose and Barbara Merrill from the University of Warwick (Institute for Employment Research and Centre for Lifelong Learning) for coordinating the research teams and contributing to and editing project reports. The interviews were carried out and the country reports prepared by country teams: Massimo Tomassini from the Faculty of Education Science, University of Roma Tre and Silvia Zanazzi from the Faculty of Education Science, University of Roma La Sapienza (Italy); Rie Thomsen, Ida Juul and Pia Cort from Aarhus University (Denmark); Esther Oliver and Lena de Botton from the University of Barcelona and Itxaso Tellado from University of Vic (Spain); M'Hamed Dif from the University of Strasbourg (BETA-Céreq Alsace), Rachel Mulvey from the University of East London and Sophie Perdrix from the University of Lausanne (France); as well as Simone Haasler and Barbara Rinken from the University of Bremen (Germany). Cedefop experts Antje Barabasch and Giovanni Russo coordinated the study, under the supervision of the Head of Area Pascaline Descy, with a valuable contribution from Pedro Moreno Da Fonseca who reviewed this publication. The work was carried out under Cedefop's service contract No AO/RPA/GRUSSO-ABARA/Narrative learning transitions/015/11.]

A strong VET system is increasingly seen as essential to overcoming the current economic crisis in Europe. VET is seen as a powerful tool to assist in balancing labour market inefficiencies, increasing youth employment possibilities, and reducing skills mismatch. Its inherent flexibility and closeness to the labour market place VET in a good position to contribute to a faster economic recovery and long-term sustainable development. However, crucial for this role is continuous and systematic VET renewal that assures its relevance for the labour market. This publication explores 15 European national approaches to feedback mechanisms between VET and the labour market. It illustrates the diversity of solutions currently applied across Europe and how they are embedded in national traditions and education philosophy. The study asks three fundamental questions: how inclusive are national mechanisms for feedback between the VET system and the labour market; how responsive are existing mechanisms; and how transparent? Three annexes provide: (1) Case Studies; (2) List of interviewees; and (3) List of experts responsible for the country overviews. Bibliography and references are included. [This paper is the result of a team effort reflecting the work of a research consortium led by Jörg Markowitsch from 3s Research Laboratory who together with Tanja Bacher, Carol Costley, David Etherington, Gerhard Geiger, Günter Hefler, Jelena Helemäe, Triin Roosalu, Ellu Saar, Auni Tamm, and Odd Bjørn Ure conducted the research and fieldwork and drafted the report. This work was carried out under Cedefop's service contract No 2011-0161/AO/ECVL/JB-IPS/Cooperation Labour market--VET/007/11.]

This paper describes the potential of linguistic rights concepts, particularly those within the Act on Linguistic Policy, focusing on the normalization of Catalan in Spain. It suggests ways in which the law can be useful in increasing the use of Catalan. After an introduction, the paper presents the legal framework within which the linguistic normalization of Catalan is being developed, highlighting procedural and substantive limitations to normalization and discussing competence limitations resulting from the sharing of competencies between the state and the autonomous authorities. The next section examines basic principles that act as the grounds for linguistic law in Catalonia, looking at official languages (including examples of situations that have been dealt with in the courts), linguistic rights, and the concept of "own language," which obliges the central state authorities and institutions in Catalonia to respect it, use it as a general rule, and promote its public use at all levels. The final section describes the appraisement of the knowledge of Catalan among personnel working for the Justice Administration. (SM)

This study, by means of an experimental design, examines whether the use of an electronic manual is more effective and efficient than a print manual for the training of novice users with a music score editor program. Differences in access to the two types of manuals were looked for, and information on users' perceptions regarding the materials they used was solicited. A minimalist print manual, a hypermedia manual and two questionnaires were developed. The most prominent difference between the two manuals was the use of digital video to present procedural information in the electronic version. The rest of the information remained the same for the two manuals, as did the training strategy based on guided exploration. The research findings show an effect of the hypermedia manual in learning outcomes, access to manuals and users' perceptions. This effect might have been due to the confluence of several factors differentiating the manuals: the procedural information in the video format and the design of the interface--with limited control elements, fast access to information, and a low complementary interaction between presentation modalities--minimized the potential cognitive overload and allowed the user to start working rapidly. (Contains 26 references.) (AEF)

This report describes the development and approval of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. After discussing the expression of consent to the European Charter, the report focuses on the ratification process of and obligations assumed by Spain. Although Spain was one of the first signatories in 1992, the ratification was not signed until 2001. The initial Spanish Declaration strongly supported the protection of regional or minority languages, and Spain's ratification is also very supportive, though there are some exceptions related to university education and the media. The report notes that in general, the Charter's obligation to erase every distinction, exclusion, restriction, or unjustified preference that would imply a danger for the maintenance or development of a language opens up possibilities for a more positive interpretation for regional or minority languages. The Charter offers no capacity for enlarging Spain's linguistic law. The report suggests that its most significant contribution is that it offers an international guarantee of minimum protection for languages involved. (SM)

A study investigated the effectiveness of tandem second language learning using electronic mail (e-mail). Tandem language learning refers to a partnership between two learners, each learning the other's native language. The underlying principles of reciprocity and learner autonomy are explored, use of asynchronous communication between individuals for language learning is discussed, and theory on communicative language learning and the role of writing in language learning is examined, and the study is presented. Subjects were seven dyads of native English- and native Spanish-speaking adults of varied second-language proficiency levels, located in Ireland, Denmark, and Spain. Data were drawn from analysis of e-mail messages and a survey of participants. Analysis focuses on choice of language, type of language used, nature of cultural exchange, style and quality of peer feedback, development of language usage awareness, communication strategies, and students' comments and attitudes. Conclusions and areas for further research are discussed. Contains 53 references. (MSE)

A survey was undertaken in ten countries to assess several aspects of education in multicultural societies: the attitudes of elementary teachers in training concerning different cultural groups, attitudes about separation of cultural groups for teaching purposes, and the fit between teacher attitudes and the system's provisions. In addition, a questionnaire was developed to measure these factors. The questionnaire was administered in ten countries: Bolivia; Spain; Mauritius; Jordan; Lebanon; Mexico; Pakistan; Poland; Senegal; and the Czech Republic. Monographs have been published separately for each country; comparisons are reported here. The first section of the report presents a brief literature review, and the second describes the study's methodology, including difficulties encountered with it. The third part summarizes results concerning the schools' objectives, the teacher's role, teachers' reasons for choosing their career, and the solutions they envision for schooling problems. After this, findings concerning teaching facilities, attribution of causes for teaching problems, and awareness of cultural distance between groups are reported. The final section offers a summary and discussion of findings. Contains 37 references. (MSE)

The Reform of Secondary Education carried out in Spain in recent years has given rise to an increased number of options for students. This study empirically analyzed the consistency between options chosen by students in secondary education and the later demand for degrees at the higher education level. The sample consisted of two cohorts of students from secondary education that entered the Basque Country University (Spain). The consistency of the initial demand (preregistration) and the final demand (registration) for degrees is then analyzed as are the negative consequences of students' studying for a degree other than the one originally preferred. Also included is a brief discussion of the predictive factors of demand for higher education degrees. The study's findings suggested that it is not advisable to have great numbers of students entering courses other than the ones they wish to follow because such a condition will certainly affect the interest and motivation for the courses. Contains eight references. (Author/GLR).

This bibliographic essay is designed to help the student begin to investigate both context and content of contemporary Spanish society, government, politics, and economy. Coverage is selective because the focus is on sources in English, although where important subject matter gaps exist, Spanish sources are provided. Many of these are available in research libraries. Others have to be secured from their publishers, such as agencies of the government of Spain. The investigator of Spanish institutions will find that understanding the nature of this culture will fall into three broad categories of analysis: (1) broad, retrospective and introspective historical analyses of history, society, politics, and economics, that reach back from pre-Roman influences and travel into the 20th century: (2) works that emphasize the forces, particularly political, from the late 19th century on that led up to the civil war and include the Franco regime; and (3) the period of post-Franco transformation and the current building of Spain as a democratic constitutional monarchy. The first two traditions are primarily historical, the third is rich in analysis. Because democracy in Spain developed through a peaceful transformation to democracy by negotiation among its major interests, the transformation period fundamentally altered Spain's governmental and economic institutions, laid to rest many political cleavages that had been alive for nearly 200 years, and changed Spanish society. The resources described are divided into sections of general works, political system, government and policy making, economy, society and culture. Contains 124 references. (DK)

This paper focuses on the impact of introducing a Group Dynamics Training Activity (GDTA) on learners' reported engagement during the course. The context is a university Common European Framework of Reference for languages (CEFR) B2 French language online course over the course of two semesters. Data was collected in the form of online surveys during the semester prior to the introduction of the GDTA and during the semester when it was administered. This case study uses quantitative analysis of Likert-scale question responses and qualitative analysis of open fields in the questionnaires using a content analysis methodology. Results indicate that the GDTA had a positive impact on learners, particularly on the social and cognitive dimension of learner engagement. [For the complete volume, "Intelligent CALL, Granular Systems and Learner Data: Short Papers from EUROCALL 2022 (30th, Reykjavik, Iceland, August 17-19, 2022)," see ED624779.]