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We study whether autonomous schools, which are publicly funded but can operate more independently than government-run schools, affect student achievement and school segregation across 15 countries over 16 years. Our triple-differences regressions exploit between-grade variation in the share of students attending autonomous schools within a given country and year. While autonomous schools do not affect overall achievement, effects are positive for high-socioeconomic status students and negative for immigrants. Impacts on segregation mirror these findings, with evidence of increased segregation by socioeconomic and immigrant status. Rather than creating "a rising tide that lifts all boats," autonomous schools increase inequality

The feedback between vocational education and training (VET) and the labour market can provide important input for the review and renewal of qualifications. A feedback loop that is based on learning outcomes helps provide deeper insights into what is required on the labour market, what is offered in training provisions and assessed at the end of a learning programme. The aim of this study is to contribute to strengthening the quality and relevance of qualifications and completing the feedback loop between education and the labour market. It examines methods of collecting data on the match/mismatch between qualifications and labour market requirements, including analysis of how achieved learning outcomes are applied and perceived in the labour market (for example methods of collecting the experience of employers with holders of these qualifications). This report addresses the following two questions: (1) which data already exist in the countries, providing insight into the relevance of qualifications to employees, employers and other labour market stakeholders?; and (2) how can survey methodology be designed to systematically capture the experiences and appreciations of employers as regards the content and profile of qualifications? To what extent, based on limited testing, can scalability of the methodology be achieved?

Validation and guidance help individuals, organisations and Member States adapt to career challenges and create successful lifelong learning systems. However, little is known about how they are linked in practice and how this connection can be made more efficient. Building on Cedefop's expertise in the two areas, this study -- based on analysis of 13 practices from 12 countries -- explores how coordination between career guidance and validation of non-formal and informal learning can be improved. Results point to three factors: (a) comprehensiveness: provision of adequate information and guidance before a decision to undergo validation is taken, throughout the entire validation process, as well as after it; (b) coherence: use of common qualifications or competence standards, occupational standards or other reference frameworks in all the stages of the practice to identify, document and assess skills; and (c) quality of staff, resources, competences, and tools used. The study concludes with policy recommendations on how to improve the link between guidance and validation.

When does a community create and sustain a truly innovative "next generation" high school that not only remains innovative, but also relevant? According to the Carnegie Corporation, this means seizing the opportunity to redesign schools to promote personalized learning. So far, much work has gone into retooling many of these (reform) elements individually. Many states, districts, and schools have made essential progress in changing teacher preparation and professional development to help talented educators enter and stay in the classroom. There have also been pushes for interventions like additional learning time, new curricula, and new technology, much of which has been shown to have a significant impact on student achievement. However, applied individually, each of these fails to get schools and school systems where they need to be to serve every student. This white paper will explore the issues through the perspectives of several members of the Atlantic Rim Collaboratory, who are attempting to share ideas and concepts on system redesign, by examples of schools that are making deep learning a priority through technology and by examples of initiatives and schools that have made personalized learning and mastery the focus of what they do. All these approaches are important for they become part of a comprehensive whole that can drive meaningful change. [For "Innovation and Deeper Learning: Model High Schools," see ED604591.]

The issues facing the following areas of adult education in Ireland in the era of lifelong learning were examined in a white paper: (1) second chance and further education; (2) community education; (3) workplace education; and (4) higher education. The Irish National Association of Adult Education (AONTAS) analyzed the recommendations presented in the white paper. Although AONTAS generally welcomed the changes in Ireland's adult education system that are outlined in the white paper, it did express specific concerns about several proposals. The following were among AONTAS' specific policy recommendations: (1) limiting the proposal regarding lowering the pupil-teacher ratio to literacy programs could lead to a proliferation of provision at the foundation level with a lack of supported programs after completion of the foundation program; (2) program fees should be abolished not just for the most disadvantaged adults but for all adult learners; (3) because low-skill workers will still be a marginalized group under the proposals outlined in the white paper, measures must be put in place to ensure that they can avail themselves of the opportunities necessary for success in a high-skilled, knowledge-based economy; (4) only the complete abolition of student fees can remove the confusion regarding entitlement to free fees and protect the interests of all adult learners. (MN)

This study addresses qualifications at level 5 of the European qualifications framework (EQF) in 15 countries (Belgium (Flanders), the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, France, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, the United Kingdom (EWNI and Scotland) that had linked their national qualification levels to the EQF by June 2012. EQF level 5 qualifications play an important role in providing access to employment and career advancement as well as enabling further learning and progression to higher education. This double function makes them attractive to learners and employers. Although the extent to which countries use qualifications at EQF level 5 differs, their importance is growing in all countries investigated for several reasons. First, they are developed as response to increased needs for advanced technical and/or management skills. Second, they seem to be especially attractive to students with VET background and those already in employment. They also contribute to lifelong learning by being accessible and attractive for adults and non-traditional learners. The following are appended: (1) List of working definitions; (2) List of interviewees; (3) Available data on EQF level 5 qualifications; (4) Key purposes and functions of qualifications; (5) Further material on learning outcome descriptions of qualifications; and (6) Duration and mode of delivery. A bibliography is also included. [The research was carried out by Panteia in consortium with 3S under Cedefop service contract AO/ECVL/JBSPEV/Qualifications_EQF_level_5/001/12.]

Differences in teacher quality are commonly cited as a key determinant of the huge international student performance gaps. However, convincing evidence on this relationship is still lacking, in part because it is unclear how to measure teacher quality consistently across countries. We use unique international assessment data to investigate the role of teacher cognitive skills as one main dimension of teacher quality in explaining student outcomes. Our main identification strategy exploits exogenous variation in teacher cognitive skills attributable to international differences in relative wages of nonteacher public sector employees. Using student-level test score data, we find that teacher cognitive skills are an important determinant of international differences in student performance. Results are supported by fixed-effects estimation that uses within-country between-subject variation in teacher skills.

A strong VET system is increasingly seen as essential to overcoming the current economic crisis in Europe. VET is seen as a powerful tool to assist in balancing labour market inefficiencies, increasing youth employment possibilities, and reducing skills mismatch. Its inherent flexibility and closeness to the labour market place VET in a good position to contribute to a faster economic recovery and long-term sustainable development. However, crucial for this role is continuous and systematic VET renewal that assures its relevance for the labour market. This publication explores 15 European national approaches to feedback mechanisms between VET and the labour market. It illustrates the diversity of solutions currently applied across Europe and how they are embedded in national traditions and education philosophy. The study asks three fundamental questions: how inclusive are national mechanisms for feedback between the VET system and the labour market; how responsive are existing mechanisms; and how transparent? Three annexes provide: (1) Case Studies; (2) List of interviewees; and (3) List of experts responsible for the country overviews. Bibliography and references are included. [This paper is the result of a team effort reflecting the work of a research consortium led by Jörg Markowitsch from 3s Research Laboratory who together with Tanja Bacher, Carol Costley, David Etherington, Gerhard Geiger, Günter Hefler, Jelena Helemäe, Triin Roosalu, Ellu Saar, Auni Tamm, and Odd Bjørn Ure conducted the research and fieldwork and drafted the report. This work was carried out under Cedefop's service contract No 2011-0161/AO/ECVL/JB-IPS/Cooperation Labour market--VET/007/11.]

This project on national standards and accreditation of career practitioners is set against a background of unprecedented interest by governments nationally and internationally in the provision of career guidance services. Currently more is known about the policy and delivery of career guidance than at any other time in history. There is growing interest in the relationship between career guidance and public policy because the benefits of career guidance to individuals, society and the economy have been recognised. In this regard, strategic alliances are being formed between career guidance practitioners and policy makers in order that policy commitments relating to the provision of quality career services are enhanced. Such an alliance is evidenced in the collaboration between the Department of Education, Science and Training and the Career Industry Council of Australia on this project. This project constitutes a very necessary step in a move towards a quality industry. The purpose of this scoping paper is to: (1) identify current standards guiding career practitioners in Australia; (2) review international work on standards including examples of best practice and advise on how this work might be relevant to the development of national standards and accreditation in the Australian context; (3) be informed by outcomes of national workshops, forums, and conferences 2000-2004; (4) identify the current membership requirements of professional career associations and bodies both nationally and internationally; (5) assess how prior learning or qualifications might be recognised and developed to fit within and meet the requirements of the quality standards; and (6) identify the issues that need to be addressed in the development of national standards. To achieve this purpose, this paper is structured around four main sections--international quality standards, national quality standards, standards guiding Australian professions, and the Australian career industry. Following this a number of themes related to the development and implementation of quality standards will be elaborated. A number of issues relating to the development and implementation of quality standards and accreditation in the Australian career industry will then be raised. Appended are: (1) Glossary of terms; (2) Table of Comparative Competencies; (3) Entry-level Qualifications of Australian Career Practitioner Associations; (4) Standards of Australian Career Practitioner Associations; and (5) Comparison of Quality Standards Across Career Case Studies.

This report describes a qualitative research project designed to evaluate the use of the European Language Portfolio (ELP) in Irish post-primary schools. The project was coordinated by the Centre for Language and Communication Studies, Trinity College Dublin, and involved the participation of language teachers and learners from a number of schools in Ireland. The report is divided into four sections. Section 1 briefly sketches the origins and functions of the ELP, explains how the Irish ELP for post-primary learners was developed, and describes its key design features. Section 2 gives an account of the project that was set up to evaluate the use of the ELP in 2001-02. It outlines the aims and scope of the project, describes its working methods and data-gathering procedures, and gives an overview of the classrooms and participants involved. Section 3 presents a detailed evaluation of teachers' and learners' experiences of working with the ELP. The evaluation draws on teachers' own narrative accounts of classroom events and processes as well as learner reflections and learner-produced ELP materials. Section 4 concludes by considering particular issues and implications arising from the evaluation. (Contains 21 references.) (Author/SM)

A major theoretical issue in the study of language processing and language acquisition is whether language development is independent of other aspects of cognitive development, encapsulated in a "language module." This issue is discussed as it relates to lexical processing. The paper begins with a historical contextualization of the modular view of the mind and a general discussion of language processing from a modular perspective. It then considers and critiques some arguments in favor of modularity based on neurolinguistic data, before examining the cases for and against the notion that the formal aspects of lexical processing are "informationally encapsulated." Finally, it discusses the relevance of the modularity concept to lexical processing. (MSE)

In a review of literature on second language learning, an opinion is put forth that certain assumptions underlying the theory and the research have influenced researchers' attitudes about second language development and diminished the objectivity of the research. Furthermore the content of the research must then be examined within its sociocultural, historical, and political context, and that it may be necessary to question some of these assumptions, which are based, philosophically, on a modern rationalist, positivist perspective. A postmodern view that second language education is political, and that all knowledge is socially and historically constructed is proposed. These issues are examined: the concept of "natural language" traditional in applied linguistics; artificial distinction made between the language learner and the social context of language learning; Eurocentrism in theorizing about language and language systems; the value of statistics in determining generalizability of research findings; the concept of normalization; and the nature of metalinguistic awareness. It is suggested that the social, cultural, and political nature of research is fragile, and that to understand it, it is necessary to examine it in relation to existing practices and conditions. Contains 39 references. (MSE)

The report details the Irish portion of an experiment in tandem language learning by electronic mail (e-mail). The partners were Trinity College, Dublin (Ireland) and Ruhr University, Bochum (Germany), funded by the European Union within the International E-Mail Tandem Network as part of a two-year project. Tandem language learning is a form of open learning in which two individuals with different native languages work together to learn each other's language, in this case, English and German; success depends on adherence to the principles of reciprocity and learner autonomy. The report describes the network and the principles of tandem language learning by e-mail, the organization of this part of the study, including pedagogical design and considerations, the process of affective and linguistic data collection, and data analysis. The linguistic data analysis focused on bilingual skills, language register, discourse fillers, punctuation, explicit coordination between partners, error correction and generalizations made, thematic content, control and critical detachment, use of metalanguage, and accuracy of corrections. Implications for future work in this area are discussed briefly. Contains 10 references. (MSE)

A study investigated the effectiveness of tandem second language learning using electronic mail (e-mail). Tandem language learning refers to a partnership between two learners, each learning the other's native language. The underlying principles of reciprocity and learner autonomy are explored, use of asynchronous communication between individuals for language learning is discussed, and theory on communicative language learning and the role of writing in language learning is examined, and the study is presented. Subjects were seven dyads of native English- and native Spanish-speaking adults of varied second-language proficiency levels, located in Ireland, Denmark, and Spain. Data were drawn from analysis of e-mail messages and a survey of participants. Analysis focuses on choice of language, type of language used, nature of cultural exchange, style and quality of peer feedback, development of language usage awareness, communication strategies, and students' comments and attitudes. Conclusions and areas for further research are discussed. Contains 53 references. (MSE)

As part of a larger study of the European Community (EC) initiatives and their effect on higher education policies and policy-making in all member countries, this case study examines EC impact on higher education in Ireland. Ireland was chosen as a possible example of how EC will impact higher education as it is one of four countries expected to be net beneficiaries of EC funds. Ireland has already received 5 billion Irish pounds (1989 to 1994) and expects to receive 7.8 billion more between 1994 and 1999. The study used qualitative methods to gather information in interviews with senior government officials, the national higher education governance board, and relevant people at most of the campuses of the national system of higher education. During the decades since the 1950s dramatic increases in the numbers of Irish individuals attending secondary and higher education have occurred especially since joining the EC in 1974. This extraordinary change would not have been possible without EC membership which made it financially feasible. In all universities in Ireland there is widespread knowledge of various EC educational programs and participation in these programs has had various impacts. Both direct and indirect effects on curriculum and faculty were found. Overall, there have been changes in funding patterns that have led to the reshaping and recomposition of the entire higher education system. (Contains seven references.) (JB)

This report summarizes six case studies on different aspects of the issue of evaluating investing in continuing vocational training (CVT). Part 1 (chapters 1-2) contains "Conceptual Introduction" (Jean-Marie Luttringer), which explores practical problems in considering training expenses as an investment, and "Methodological Introduction" (Alan Barrett), which discusses the merits of using qualitative and quantitative research methods in evaluating CVT investments. Part 2 (chapters 3-8) describes and analyzes continuing training schemes in six European Member States: "The Evaluation of CVT in Enterprises in Styria in Austria" (Stefan Lorenzoni, Dieter Mandl) investigates whether certain goals of CVT were achieved; "The Importance of CVT to Enterprises: A Discussion of the Agricultural Foodstuffs Sector in Denmark" (John Houman Sorenson) seeks to understand why CVT is not being used; "Accounting for Enterprise Investment in CVT in France" (J-M Luttringer, N. Pasco) discusses difficulties associated with evaluating CVT investments; "Innovative Models for Financing CVT in Germany" (Uwe Grunewald, Dick Moraal) studies four innovative models of CVT provision; "Measuring the Impact of CVT in Irish Companies" (Alan Barrett, Philip O'Connell) explores whether training and productivity growth are positively related across a sample of firms. "CVT Activity within the Packaging Sector in Italy" (Francesco Garibaldo) provides insights into how CVT can be used to cope with challenges faced by a sector. Part 3 contains two chapters: "Methodological Discussion, Conclusions, and Further Work" (Alan Barrett), which reviews each report individually before drawing general conclusions regarding methodology and "Policy Discussion, Conclusions, and Further Work" (Jean-Marie Luttringer), which examines seven problems in the assessment of training investment. Appendixes provide background to CVT in the six countries. (YLB)

Originating from a concern with the quality of teachers' guides that accompanying English language course books, this report examines the amount of importance they are accorded and the type of information they contain. The first section discusses the demands that the guides' assumptions make on the teacher in terms of the teacher's knowledge, the teacher-learner relationship, teaching techniques, and classroom management. In the second section the focus is on the practical support that teachers require in order to be able to handle communicative materials and on ways in which that support might be supplemented. The third section analyzes the results of a questionnaire that was distributed to practicing English language teachers in a number of countries. Finally, the fourth section presents a framework of basic features that teachers' guides could contain and briefly examines examples of guides written for current English language teaching materials. The framework of basic features includes the following: attitude to language; attitude to language learning and teaching; background information; linguistic information; rationale for methodology; implementation; evaluation; usability; supplementary work; and practical effort. A questionnaire on the use of teachers' guides to English language coursebooks is appended. Contains 50 references. (LB)

This study investigated language transfer, particularly in the realm of pragmatics, in a native Korean-speaking student of advanced Japanese. A series of tasks including a verbal report were used to elicit Japanese production and comprehension data. Results indicate that the learner drew heavily on his native language in completing the tasks, but that in pragmatic areas of language his performance deviated from generally accepted linguistic norms to a greater degree than his overall language proficiency would indicate. It is concluded that although language transfer helps learners attain a high level of global proficiency in a closely-related target language, it may be less effective in helping them attain a similar level of pragmatic competence in that language. This suggests that metapragmatic knowledge and affective variables may have a greater influence on development of pragmatic competence than they do on the development of other areas of target-language competence. (Contains 63 references.) (MSE)

The process by which Irish-speaking regions became English-speaking regions over a period of centuries is examined. The first part argues that schooling played far less of a role in the shift than some scholars have suggested, because schools were not structured to be particularly effective in teaching the second language (English) to Irish-speakers and because 1851 census data suggest widespread illiteracy among Irish-English bilinguals. The second part considers the role that migratory labor may have played in the shift, based on documented demographic patterns and research in other languages supporting this influence in language shift. Excerpts from individual accounts from history are used as illustration. The third part considers whether the diffusion of English in Ireland constitutes pidginization or creolization. Phonological/phonetic and morphological characteristics of Hiberno-English are examined in this context. It is concluded that while aspects of both pidginization and creolization processes are evident, this form of language mixing is unique. Contains 75 references. (MSE)

Issues in the debate in Ireland over Irish language instruction in the schools are reviewed in light of the establishment of the European Economic Community. In the first chapter, three points of view are compared: results of research on Irish, attitudes of the general public, and those of language interest groups. The second chapter provides a brief overview of public language policy from 1922-1950 and outlines results of a 1983 survey of attitudes toward Irish language use and the teaching of Irish to children. Chapter 3 looks at issues of individual and collective rights concerning language usage and attitudes toward use of Irish in primary, secondary, and postsecondary education. The two subsequent chapters address primary school and secondary school Irish curricula and instruction in greater detail. In the final chapter, related concerns are discussed, including the growing cultural diversity in Europe, European Community (EC) policy on multilingualism, EC standards for language usage, languages and the labor market, and additional language policy considerations. Contains 19 references. (MSE)

The rationale for and design of an English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) course that integrates language instruction and cultural awareness of English-speaking communities are explained. It is argued that this approach offers the best opportunity for achieving a genuinely communicative approach to school-based language learning. In the first section, it is suggested that meaningful language use can be sustained in the classroom only if a coherent syllabus of knowledge is studied through the target language, and that the most appropriate subject for such study is one where the target language offers students learning opportunities not available through the first language, a requirement met by comparative cultural studies. In the second section, some of the issues involved in designing such a program are discussed. The third section outlines an integrated syllabus for the junior cycle of secondary school, and the fourth section focuses on implementation. In this section, sample units and lessons are described. A brief bibliography is included. Contains 22 references. (MSE)

A study investigated the evolution of the use of "devil" (or as it is often spelled to represent the vernacular, divil) as part of a negation "Divil a one" (= "not a one") in Irish and Hiberno-English and traces the influence of language contact in this history. While it is found that multiple causes resulted in the development of the "devil" negation, the influences of substrate, superstrate, and universal factors are unequal. It is concluded that the principle of minimal necessity applies here: when substrate influence can be posited for the same structure in two or more language contact situations, and when this influence arises independently in at least one of the situations, the substrate is the primary causal factor in both, unless there is evidence that the structure could not have developed without a contribution from superstrate influence. contains 46 references. (Author/MSE)

A study undertaken in Ireland investigated the effectiveness of a second language teaching strategy that focused on grammatical problem-solving. In this approach, the problems are located within the target language system, and the problem-solving involves induction of grammatical rules and use of those rules. Learners are confronted with instances of a specific grammatical problem, from which they induce a generalization about form and function. They are provided with tools for solving the problem, such as examples, hints, and feedback. Learners are then given opportunities to use the rules to confirm them, observe how the new rules interact with others, and explore relationships between linguistic structures and their communicative values. Subjects were approximately 100 secondary school graduates, all foreign nationals, attending pre-university courses leading to the Irish school leaving certificate examination. Participants were placed according to ability level and randomly divided into experimental (problem-solving) and control (conventional grammar instruction) groups. Instruction covered six topics of grammar: articles; quantifiers; past simple vs. present perfect tense; logical connectives for addition, contrast, concession, and cause/effect; relative clauses; and passive voice. Experimental subjects found the approach effective and relevant and achieved greater gains in both competence and performance than did control subjects. (MSE)

Drawing on data collected for a larger study of second language learner characteristics at the Trinity College Dublin (Ireland), a profile of freshmen taking introductory Spanish in 1990-91 is reported. Subjects were 21 students, 20 female and 1 male. Most were of traditional college age, and a few were in their 30s. Almost half had previous Spanish language instruction. Most were also studying another language. Students had a relatively broad-based school education, often concentrating on and doing well in languages and language-related subject areas. The students perceived Spanish as suiting a range of interests, utilitarian, cultural, and other. Most had begun language study after age 10 and in formal instruction, and none had found it difficult. Elements of language learning found congenial included particular kinds of learning materials and classroom activities, and contributions of native speakers and language teachers. Age at which the students had begun formal language instruction (under 12 and over 12 years) was not related to students' later success, but meaningful interaction did appear related to success. Attitudes toward grammar instruction and toward interactions with native speakers also influenced success. A brief bibliography is included. (MSE)

A study of the relationship between university-level second language development and previous language and other experience is described. The study, in its early stages at the time of writing, is being conducted at Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland, and involves students of French, German, Italian, and Spanish. This report describes the subjects and methodology, specific research questions addressed, research instruments and methods, computerization of the database, and some preliminary findings from small-scale studies. Early results concern the relationship between second language experience and second language proficiency, the development of second language lexicon, and the interaction between languages learned (interlanguage) and between language learning experiences. A 28-item bibliography is appended. (MSE)

This report aims to show how an emphasis on vocabulary can contribute to courses in English for Specific Purposes (ESP), using the data from two lexical studies. The first study attempts to discover to what extent there may be a general language of science, or semi-technical vocabulary. This type of vocabulary would seem to offer a useful organizing principle for a lexical syllabus in common core ESP courses, and a role for the ESP teacher who finds difficulty in dealing with technical material. The study is concerned with elaborating a definition of the term semi-technical vocabulary using a combination of subjective and objective data, and by applying these criteria to the word list from the LOB Corpus study of a number of scientific disciplines. The second study examines lexical characteristics of one special language, electronics English. It is a lexical needs analysis, attempting to give a group of special interest learners words they need. The study is a count of the frequency items in 20,000 words of electronics English in ten 2,000-word samples. The entire corpus is examined, but the study also focuses on the semi-technical vocabulary of electronics, comparing it with the list developed from the first study. (JL)

Selected papers from the 1980 World Congress of Rehabilitation International Meeting on the participation of disabled people are presented. The papers address the rights of the disabled, the organization and functions of consumer groups, the impact of consumer involvement on rehabilitation and related services, social implications of the consumer participation movement, and the coming together of the disabled throughout the world. Titles and authors include the following: "Self-Determination of Handicapped People" (M. Fritsch); "The Right to All Types of Information" (K. Karlsson); "The Right to Work: A Political Issue" (B. Lindqvist); "Consumer Groups: Their Organization and Function" (A. Simpson); "Organizing an Action Group" (J. Simkins); "Trade Union Participation" (L. Maguire); "Handicap Councils: A Swedish Experiment" (L. Gardestrom); "Participation of Handicapped People in the Planning, Implementation and Management of Rehabilitation Services" (P. Blommestijn); "Policy Issues in Independent Living Rehabilitation" (D. Galvin); "Higher Education Opportunities" (K. Konkkola); "The Disabled Consumer Movement: Policy Implications for Rehabilitation Service Provision" (J. Derksen); "Towards Full Political Participation" (B. Carlsson); and "Disability Rights Issues: The Role of Advocacy in Government (E. Fiorito). (SW)

The use of mass media as a means of learning a foreign language from the beginning of language study is discussed. Using the media enables many of the features of the natural language acquisition process to be brought into play in a way that much current language teaching material does not. This position is supported by recent research into the processes of reading and listening. The paper also discusses some of the ways in which activities preceding or accompanying the use of media texts can make the texts accessible to a wide variety of learners, including beginners. Beginners can be helped not only to understand foreign language texts but also to create and edit their own texts at a relatively sophisticated level. This approach greatly enriches the comprehensible linguistic input while also reducing affective barriers to language learning. A practical exercise built around an Italian news story and using four newspaper articles and one radio broadcast transcript in Italian as the basis for a series of activities is appended. (Author/MSE)

The present paper questions the validity of Macnamara's (1966) finding that teaching arithmetic through a bilingual's weaker language leads to retardation in problem arithmetic. By comparing the performance of immersion pupils on an Irish (as a second language) version of the problem arithmetic test with the performance of non-immersion pupils on an English (as a first language) version, Macnamara's study confounds bilinguals' competence in arithmetic with their ability to demonstrate this competence when tested through their weaker language. Macnamara's attempt to demonstrate the equivalence of Irish and English versions of the problem arithmetic test fails to take account of probable differences in Irish competence between the immersion pupils in the pretest and those in the main study. Macnamara rejects Cummins' criticism in a brief reply. Cummins' reply to Macnamara's reply is also provided. (Author/CFM)

An examination of the extent to which the polylectal grammar, a unified grammar constructed by a listener that subsumes the dialect differences that he has to cope with in a multidialectal situation, is an appropriate means of modelling listeners' receptive command of dialects other than their native one presents evidence that cross-dialectal misunderstandings involving speakers of standard English and speakers of Hiberno-English can be considered symptomatic of a deep-seated structural mismatch between particular grammatical subsystems in the two varieties. It is proposed that for at least some speakers there is little or no awareness of major structural divergences, and that these kinds of misunderstandings should be examined for insights into the strategies that speaker-hearers use in cross-dialectal communication. It is suggested that these and other findings from the literature support the assumption that 100% correct identification of structural cues in utterances is not a necessary prerequisite to viable communication between speakers of different dialects. (Author/MSE)

Results of research attitudes toward the use of Irish in Ireland's schools are examined. The first section reports on three surveys of the adult public in 1973, 1983, and 1985. The second section discusses three surveys among national samples of young people in Ireland in 1980, 1981, and 1983. In the third section, two attitude surveys of primary school teachers are discussed. It is concluded that while there are some technical problems and some differences in emphasis and survey timing, the main surveys reviewed are generally consistent, and that discrepancies occur more in interpretation than in data. With regard to educational policy, the public pursues varied objectives and the majority endorses current policy. It is also generally agreed that "slow learners" and students whose parents do not endorse Irish instruction should not be required to learn Irish. Demand for change appears to come from minority groups with different viewpoints. Teachers are among the groups most proficient in Irish, most favorably disposed to it, and most likely to use it often. They also feel students with low academic or language ability should not be required to learn Irish. A new curriculum is desired. Students and young adults based their judgments on the perceived utility of the language. (MSE)