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The EU has set the ambitious target of raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 32% by 2030, with a target of climate neutrality by 2050. The aim of this paper is to assess the role of biomass usage in the context of these targets. The paper identifies the progress made between 2013 and 2022 by focusing on a selection of EU countries. The largest bioenergy increments of 130, 77, and 60 PJ were reported for Poland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. This study evaluates the crucial role of co-generation and heat in EU regions, with biomass usage between 55 and 80% of the combined heat and power (CHP) energy in Nordic countries. The future perspectives for bioenergy based on EU policies, biomass resources, and technical issues were addressed. The EU possesses around 9% of the global biomass supply, ensuring a certain level of biomass resource dependence. Thus, the biomass usage demand in energy production, non-energy sectors, and transport is expected to rise, leading to increments of 13–76% on biomass imports. It appears that bioenergy development is mostly limited by economic issues and uneven support for bioenergy in different EU countries as well as environmental issues. The study shows a promising and sustainable potential of bioenergy in the EU as a renewable energy source while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and the economy. By 2050, liquid biofuels are likely to be increasingly used in the transport sector. Non-energy sector usage of biomass is still in an early stage of development, except for the pulp and paper industry, and significant use of biomass in non-energy sectors seems unlikely in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European Union, increasing attention is already being paid not only to the development of renewable energy sources, but also to the establishment of solutions to achieve local energy self-sufficiency while increasing the role of citizens in managing the energy they generate. This approach is expected both to have a positive impact on the environment and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and to enhance energy security—both in economic and civic terms by, i.a., combating energy poverty. The development of local energy communities promoted in the EU is supported i.a. by energy cooperatives. These contribute to the efficient harnessing of renewable energy potential in rural and urban-rural areas, and have been developing in Poland for several years now. In their previous studies, the authors of this research paper attempted to verify the generation (number, type and capacity of installed sources) and consumption (energy demand) configurations in which an energy cooperative would be a viable solution for prosumers who might establish it. However, over the past few years, the conditions for prosumers and the method of their accounting with the electricity seller have changed radically in Poland (shift from net metering to net billing). This situation has opened up space for further research and encouraged the authors to revisit the problem of analyzing the viability of establishing energy cooperatives in relation to the rules of operation of individual prosumers. This research was carried out for three scenarios, and the horizon of the analyses conducted and described extends to 2045. The comparative analysis included energy consumers without their own generation sources, prosumers with a photovoltaic generation installation covered by the net billing model, as well as a scenario involving prosumers' cooperation within an energy cooperative, which by law is settled in the net metering model. Conclusions from the research and simulations made it possible to confirm the claim that, despite changes in the rules of prosumer billing, developing energy independence in the energy community formula results in a significant reduction in the cost of purchasing electricity (even several times lower purchase costs in the timeframe analyzed) and can lead to a reduction in the payback time of investments in generation sources even by a factor of two. The results presented in this research paper open up space for further research. The outcomes allow us to assume that energy cooperatives—in the organizational and institutional model in Poland—are a good tool for reducing the phenomenon of energy poverty on a local scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manufacturing companies strive to minimize costs, maximize efficiency and improve production quality, which is crucial for market competitiveness. As companies grow and technologies evolve, increasingly complex challenges arise in effectively managing and improving production processes. One of the tools that helps companies improve their processes is value-stream mapping (VSM). The article focuses on the use of VSM in the production process of hand tools used in the construction industry. The paper presents selected aspects of the optimization of the production process using the mapping concept. The research identified and characterized the most important processes occurring in the production of hand tools used in construction. Then, basic data on the value stream was collected and the need for improvements and actions aimed at optimizing the value stream was indicated. Financial results, key performance indicators (KPIs), machine operation and reliability, energy consumption in the production process and overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) before and after improvements were calculated. The analysis carried out allowed for the optimization of the production process in terms of economy and energy consumption. As a result of the improvements, the productivity of injection-molding workers increased by 9.4% and the overall equipment efficiency by 18%. The machine availability rate increased from 70.3% to 85.2%. After implementing the improvements, the company is able to save approximately 295,488 kWh annually, i.e., approximately EUR 53,253, while 1 kWh currently costs producers in Poland EUR 0.18. The conclusions and results described in the paper constitute a solid basis for further development of an improvement project for the selected company. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, one of the main goals is to make municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) energy-neutral. However, advanced wastewater treatments and sewage sludge processing are still classified as highly energy-intensive. In this study, the energy self-sufficiency potential assessment of the WWTP located in Krosno (Poland) was evaluated. Moreover, the possible paths for improving the energy balance of the analyzed facility are presented in this paper. The performed evaluation indicated that in 2016–2019, the energy consumption at WWTP Krosno varied from 0.25 to 0.71 kWh/m3 of wastewater (average 0.51 kWh/m3), and the highest energy utilization values in each year were recorded around the summer season. An analysis of the data showed that as the pollutant load flowing into the WWTP increased, its energy utilization decreased. Such results indicate that the treatment cost per cubic meter decreases as the load increases due to the capital cost being the same. The estimated self-sufficiency of the facility in the years analyzed was 50.5%. The average energy recovery from 1 m3 of wastewater was 0.27 kWh/m3, and the average energy recovery from 1 m3 of biogas was 1.54 kWh/m3. Since the energy balance of this wastewater treatment plant, determined primarily by the continuously increasing cost of energy purchases, has to be improved, two courses of action were identified that will allow for increasing self-sufficiency. The co-digestion strategy was indicated as the easiest solution to implement, given the on-going anaerobic stabilization of sewage sludge at this WWTP. Moreover, the possible co-substrates that can be obtained from local suppliers were indicated. The second course of action, which requires a thorough economic analysis, is sludge pre-treatment, which might improve sewage sludge properties, resulting in a more favorable biogas yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green transition is a challenge for the Polish economy and energy sector. In this paper, the expert method of analysis was applied and findings revealed that the challenges and prerequisites for an effective transformation of the power sector mainly include technical, technological and organizational issues of energy production and use. The provision of electricity at competitive prices and with a low carbon footprint, for individual consumers and industry, is a prerequisite for maintaining the well-being of the population and ensuring the competitiveness of domestically produced goods. The ambitious climate policy goals of the European Union require immediate action and call for radical changes in the Polish energy sector; in the coming years, it must drastically reduce the amount of energy produced from fossil fuels and replace it with so-called green energy from renewable sources. The main purpose of this article was to highlight the need to modify Poland's energy policy until 2040 in order to make it more consistent with the ambitious climate goals of the European Union. This article also shows that Poland's energy transition must include a shift from fossil fuels to renewables, while ensuring that energy security is stabilized by the current energy and generation resources. To this end, we discuss the issues of creating reserves in the national energy system for the entire period of Poland's energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fruit and vegetable processing comes 6th in terms of energy consumption in the agri-food industry. At the same time, 88.4% of the industry's final energy consumption structure is thermal energy, which depends heavily on electricity consumption. In addition, fruit and vegetable processing has a significant impact on the environment due to consumption of significant amounts of water. Reducing these three indicators simultaneously would increase the efficiency of the process while improving environmental protection. This paper proposes neural models of thermal energy, electricity and water consumption for selected major fruit- and vegetable-processing plants in Poland. These models were the basis for formulating a multi-criteria optimization task. Optimization of thermal energy, electricity and water consumption was carried out using genetic algorithms. The optimization results in the sense of Pareto can be the basis for the use of sustainable technology in selected fruit- and vegetable-processing plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aim of this study was to assess the investment activity of basic local government units in the development of renewable energy sources co-financed by EU funds depending on CO2 emissions and other socio-economic conditions in terms of regions of Poland in the years 2007–2020. Empirical studies aimed at the verification of the research hypothesis that "the greatest investment activity in local projects co-financed from EU funds related to the development of renewable energy sources is observed for local government units in regions with highest CO2 emissions". Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the National Centre for Emissions Management. Thus, the conducted analyses provide both cognitive and applicatory values for the establishment of an appropriate energy transition policy in individual regions of Poland, which may be implemented by local government authorities within the current financial framework. Data concerning CO2 emissions at the regional level were estimated by applying the original disaggregation method as modified by the authors, which made it possible to fill the research gap resulting from the lack of data on emissions at the regional level. In order to show the regional diversification in investment activity of local government units in terms of renewable energy sources, its multi-faceted analysis was conducted by applying the Ward method. Clusters of regions with similar investment activity of local government units were described based on characteristics included in the typological classification (so-called active characteristics) and selected indexes showing CO2 emission levels, as well as selected socio-economic indexes (so-called passive characteristics). Based on the empirical studies, the research hypothesis presented in this paper was negatively verified. Considering both multiannual financial frameworks, the EU financial support for the development of renewable energy sources was used primarily by local government units of a predominantly agricultural character, and less advanced in terms of their development but exhibiting conditions conducive to renewable energy development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearly 60% of commercial customers are connected to a low-voltage network in Poland with a contractual capacity of more than 40 kW and are assigned a fixed tariff with flat prices for the whole year, no matter the usage volume. With smart meters, more data about how businesses use energy are becoming available to both energy providers and customers. This enables innovation in the structure and type of tariffs on offer in the energy market. Customers can explore their usage patterns to choose the most suitable tariff to benefit from lower prices and thus generate savings. In this paper, we analyzed whether customers' electricity usage matched their optimal tariff and further investigated which of them could benefit or lose from switching the tariff based on the real dataset with the hourly energy readings of 1212 commercial entities in Poland recorded between 2016 and 2019. Three modelling approaches, i.e., the k-nearest neighbors, classification tree and random forest, were tested for optimal tariff classification, while for the benchmark, we used a simple approach, in which the tariff was proposed based on the customers' previous electricity usage. The main findings from the research are threefold: (1) out of all the analyzed entities, on average, 76% of them could have benefited from the tariff switching, which suggests that customers may not be aware of the tariff change benefits, or they had chosen a tariff plan that was not tailored to them; (2) a random forest model offers a viable approach to accurate tariff classification; (3) the policy implication from the research is the need to increase the customers' awareness about the tariffs and propose reliable tools for selecting the optimal tariff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The public procurement system in Poland remains highly centralized, although thanks to European Community directives, it is part of European law. Therefore, it has established procedures for sustainable public procurement, including so-called green public procurement. In addition to the Public Procurement Law of 11 September 2019, other provisions introducing specific instruments (e.g., energy labels, environmental labels) should be taken into consideration, as such provisions make it easier for contracting authorities to take environmental aspects into account in tender procedures. Bearing in mind the existing legal regulations, this article features a diagnosis of the degree of use of measures to improve energy efficiency in public procurement procedures and models activities related to improving this situation. For this purpose, surveys were conducted for 120 entities applying the provisions of the Public Procurement Law. Taking into consideration the results obtained in the survey, 15 factors related to the improvement of energy efficiency in tender procedures were selected with the help of 12 purposively selected experts connected with the issues raised in this article. Thanks to their expert knowledge, three key factors determining the wider use of this instrument were modeled by means of the systems theory–based methodology of network thinking. The paper also attempts to indicate the key factors determining the wider use of this instrument, using the network thinking methodology for this purpose. As a result of the conducted research, it was found that these factors include human capital, industry, and the energy crisis. Research on the subject in the Polish literature remains innovative and allows for the formulation of application recommendations for decision makers. The concept of energy efficiency in this paper refers to the ratio of the results obtained to the energy input. Efficient use of energy aims to reduce the amount of energy needed to deliver products and services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is indisputable that power systems are being transformed around the world to increase the use of RES and reduce the use of fossil fuels in overall electricity production. This year, the EU Parliament adopted the Fit for 55 package, which should significantly reduce the use of fossil fuels in the energy balance of EU countries while increasing the use of RES. At the end of 2022, the total number of prosumer installations in Poland amounted to about one million two hundred thousand. Such a high saturation of prosumer micro-installations in the power system causes many threats resulting from their operation. These threats result, among others, from the fact that photovoltaics are classified as unstable sources and the expected production of electricity from such installations is primarily associated with highly variable weather conditions and is only dependent on people to a minor extent. Currently, there is a rapid development of topics related to forecasting the volume of energy production from unstable sources such as wind and photovoltaic power plants. This issue is being actively developed by research units around the world. Scientists use a whole range of tools and models related to forecasting techniques, from physical models to artificial intelligence. According to our findings, the use of machine learning models has the greatest chance of obtaining positive prognostic effects for small, widely distributed prosumer installations. The present paper presents the research results of two energy balance prediction algorithms based on machine learning models. For forecasting, we proposed two regression models, i.e., regularized LASSO regression and random forests. The work analyzed scenarios taking into account both endogenous and exogenous variables as well as direct multi-step forecasting and recursive multi-step forecasting. The training was carried out on real data obtained from a prosumer micro-installation. Finally, it was found that the best forecasting results are obtained with the use of a random forest model trained using a recursive multi-step method and an exogenous scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main goal of the study was to assess the possibility of practical use of products of pyrolysis of refuse-derived fuel (RDF), i.e., pyrolysis gas, biochar and pyrolysis oil, as an alternative to standard fossil fuels. The subject matter of the paper reaches out to the challenges faced by the global economy, not only in the context of the energy crisis, but also in the context of the energy transformation currently beginning in Europe. The increase in fuel and energy prices prompts countries to look for alternative solutions to Russian minerals. At the same time, the growing amount of municipal waste forces the implementation of solutions based on energy recovery (the amount of municipal waste per EU inhabitant in 2021 is 530 kg). One such solution is pyrolysis of RDF, i.e., fuels produced from the over-sieve fraction of municipal waste. In Poland, insufficient processing capacity of thermal waste conversion plants has led to significant surpluses of RDF (1.2 million Mg of undeveloped RDF in Poland in 2021). RDF, due to their high calorific value, can be a valuable energy resource (16–18 MJ/k). This issue is analyzed in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of ongoing climate changes and the current geopolitical situation, Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are continuously gaining popularity in many countries. Objectives related to environmental protection and the use of RES set by different countries all over the world, as well as by the European Union (EU), are becoming priorities for many. The increase in the installed capacity of photovoltaic systems has been growing steadily for several years, leading to the creation of new systems accompanying PV installations; this phenomenon has also been observed in Poland. This paper presents a photovoltaic system in the form of a bicycle shed next to a school building as an example of building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) without connection to the power grid. It was shown that the energy consumption profile should be properly correlated with the production profile, otherwise significant losses occur. Alternative methods to improve the correlation of production and energy consumption by using SCADA systems or building automation to properly manage the electricity generation and consumption installation were also proposed. Furthermore, it was shown that adopting a fixed discount rate in financial analyses can distort the picture of real profits. An analysis of the changes in the NPV ratio using variable discount rates was carried out when analyzing the entire life of the solar plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of the authors' research on the share of energy costs in revenues and their impact on the profitability of companies. This research was inspired by a large increase in energy prices in 2022. The authors analyzed the shares of energy consumption costs in production companies from various industries, using various sources: scientific literature, expert studies, and statistical data. Based on the results of these analyses, the authors simulated the impact of changes in energy prices on the profitability of companies. The research results are as follows: according to the authors, the share of these costs in the value of sales is much lower (several percent) than presented in various literature sources (a dozen or so, and even up to 30% in some cases). Despite this, however, the change in energy prices should significantly reduce profitability according to the simulations conducted by the authors. However, the financial reports analyzed by the authors show that profitability in many cases not only did not deteriorate, but revenues and profits increased in a large number of companies. In many cases, this can be explained by the actions taken by companies to reduce energy consumption costs and by increases in product prices. The authors' research also shows that if factors such as the specificity of the industry or the size of the company have an impact on energy efficiency, it is only to a small extent. The share of energy costs in sales and financial results, even within a given industry and in companies of similar size, varies greatly. The authors therefore believe that the effectiveness of the management of a given company has the greatest impact. Therefore, the results of the analysis differ significantly from the results of studies presented in the literature. Energy consumption data were analyzed using various literature sources from different countries. However, the main analyses conducted by the authors focused on Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) into energy systems requires a meticulous assessment of various factors, spanning renewable energy potential, legal frameworks, technical considerations, community engagement, and consumer preferences. This article synthesizes a multifaceted discussion on the subject, focusing on the need for comprehensive analyses before deciding to implement SMRs. Drawing insights from geographic information systems (GIS) and lessons from renewable energy development in Poland, this paper underscores the significance of aligning energy strategies with local needs, emphasizing stakeholder participation. This study examines the factors influencing location attractiveness for various energy technologies, including small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs), wind, solar, and hydroelectric power plants, within Poland. Employing 17 indicators sourced from Statistics Poland and URE, coupled with the application of the k-means algorithm, we outline four distinct clusters that delineate the zones of location attractiveness for SMRs and other renewable energy sources. While large and medium-sized cities exhibit optimal location attractiveness, coastal counties in northern Poland emerge as more suitable for renewable energy sources than for SMRs. The study outlines four distinct energy development strategies based on typologies of regions, each tailored to maximize the utility of available resources and minimize environmental impact. The strategies encompass renewable energy utilization, energy efficiency enhancement, energy diversification, and adaptation through innovation. Emphasizing the interplay between renewable energy potential, energy demand, and local conditions, the research suggests the strategic deployment of SMRs as part of an energy mix in areas where renewable energy resources are limited. By leveraging SMRs' continuous energy production, these reactors can complement intermittent renewables, bolstering energy security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is a key driver of all modern economies. Sustainable development is playing an increasingly important role both at regional and local levels. It is a compromise between social and economic needs and the preservation of nature. In the policy of the European Union, the idea of sustainable development and environmental protection is of decisive importance for the implemented programs and economic activities. Contemporary challenges require the transformation of the energy market towards greater use of renewable sources. According to Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and European Council on promoting energy from renewable sources, Poland has committed itself to achieving a 23% share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption by 2030. This goal considers total energy consumption in terms of power, engineering, heating, refrigeration, and transport. The aim of this paper was, firstly, an analysis of the share of renewable energy in the European Union over an 18-year period (2004–2021), with particular emphasis on the position of Poland. The second objective was the analysis of renewable energy at the local level in Poland, i.e., at the local government unit (LAU) level. Changes in the share of renewable energy in Poland compared to other European countries were also examined. The study utilized functional analysis of principal components and cluster analysis based on the data from the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT. The study found that while Poland does not differ significantly from other countries in using renewable energy, it does fall below the European average. Principal component analysis suggests that Poland responds adequately to European changes in the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption. This dynamic is stable (over 95% explained by the first component) and applies to most countries surveyed. In addition, the authors sought to answer questions relating to the current status of renewable energy sources in Poland, the barriers and challenges facing the introduction of renewable energy in the country, a comparative analysis of Poland's progress in renewable energy with other global counterparts, and an exploration of the future prospects and potential for the development of renewable energy in Poland. The study found that the potential for renewable energy is greatest in the northern areas of Poland, with photovoltaics and wind power plants providing the greatest capacity. Poland's renewable energy potential is very high and will be determined by technological development, political, economic, and social issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although European energy policy supports the reduction of energy consumption, the current economic and political situation in Poland and uncertainty related to the origin of energy sources do not support it. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to identify and assess the factors that affect the energy-saving behaviour of Polish consumers in the process of energy consumption. The research problem concerns the specificity of behaviours that are part of new trends in consumption, such as greening and the ethical dimension of consumption. The research question arises as to what the social responsibility of consumers is in the process of energy consumption. The research problem comes down to the question of factors that determine the behaviour of an individual consumer in the energy market. In order to realise the indicated purpose of the article, a conceptual research model was built and direct research was conducted using the research method, which was an online survey (CAWI). The research was run among 1422 individual consumers. After verifying 14 research hypotheses, it can be concluded that energy-saving behaviour is influenced in similar ways by a set of factors. In the paper there are findings which show that the generally understood energy-saving behaviour (Y1—at home and Y2—off-site) is influenced by the following factors: X1—energy-saving knowledge, X3—green consumer values, X5—social influence, X6—beliefs, and X7—consumer awareness. The specific mechanism of influence of each of the dominant factors is that the higher the intensity of these factors in consumer behaviour, the more actions are taken to save energy inside or outside the home. However, X2—energy-saving cost perception and X4—materialism presents this influence mechanism only for Y1—energy-saving behaviour at home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective implementation of renewable energy sources (RES) is one of the main challenges in regard to the organization of local energy microgrids with buildings. One of the solutions is the use of dynamic building façades with photovoltaic (PV) panels, in particular the innovative perovskite solar cells (PSCs). This paper describes a case study performed on a pilot installation of perovskite PV panels located in Poland, Central-Eastern Europe. Results of preliminary measurements on this installation are provided in terms of verifying its energy efficiency and the possibility of selecting settings for the façade dynamics control system. Our experiments have considered the sun-tracking mechanism and its energy consumption as well as the impact of weather conditions at different times of the year. The energy efficiency results for the PV system, with average levels below 10%, are rather low. Therefore, even small energy savings in the operation of the PV system itself are significant. Changes in control scenarios for sun-tracking have been proposed and have obtained a reduction from 5% to 1% of energy consumption in autumn and from almost 3.2% to 0.6% in spring, in relation to overall energy produced by the PV system. The need for further experimental research from the perspective of the development and extension of the analyzed installation is pointed out as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extended-Range Electric Vehicles (EREVs) are intended to improve the range of battery electric vehicles and thus eliminate drivers' concerns about running out of energy before reaching the desired destination. This paper gives an insight into EREV's performance operating according to the proposed control strategy over various driving cycles, including the Worldwide Harmonized Light-duty Test Cycle Class 3b (WLTC 3b), Federal Test Procedure (FTP-75), and China Light-Duty Vehicle Test Cycle (CLTC-P). Simulation runs were performed in Matlab-Simulink® for different cases of drive range, electricity mix, and vehicle mass. The control strategy goal was to aim at a specified value of battery state of charge at the targeted range value. The obtained test results included: pure electric drive range, acceleration times, EREV range tests, control strategy range errors, Range Extender (REX) utilization metric and distribution of its engagement instances, fuel consumption, total equivalent CO2 emission, powertrain efficiency, and specific energy consumption. The control strategy operated on average with a range error of −1.04% and a range mean square error of 2.13%. Fuel consumption (in range extension mode) varied between 1.37 dm3/100 km (FTP-75) and 6.85 dm3/100 km (WLTC 3b Extra-High 3). CO2eq emission was 95.3–244.2 g/km for Poland, 31.0–160.5 g/km for EU-27, and 1.2–147.6 g/km for Sweden. This paper is a valuable source of information for scientists and engineers seeking to learn the advantages and shortcomings of EREV drives with a proposed control strategy, based on various sets of results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of measuring and calculating the final energy consumption for heating and domestic hot water preparation in six apartments located in pre-war tenement houses in Wroclaw (Poland). The calculations were carried out based on energy models of dwellings calibrated with measurement data. Calculation variants were characterized by seven internal parameters (indoor air temperature, heat transfer coefficient by transmission through the internal partition, internal heat gains, air exchange multiplicity in the dwelling, domestic hot water consumption, and domestic hot water temperature and cold water temperature) and two external parameters (outdoor air temperature and insolation). By comparing calculations with measurements, the energy performance gap (EPG) values associated with each parameter were determined. The presented results indicate how much of the differences could be attributed to weather conditions and how much to other factors. It is quite common for the influence of some factors to cancel out the influence of others. Identifying and understanding the real causes of the energy gap may allow for the proposal of better retrofitting solutions or appropriate financial support to households at risk of energy poverty. It is important to note that only in-depth interviews with residents and measurements, such as those carried out in this case, allow such situations to be identified in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of conducted research was to recognize factors determining households' Energy transition and barriers that slow that process. Energy transition itself, understood as a shift in the structure of fuels used in energy production and technological changes related to its use, are key elements of shaping the economy. It was determined to what extent existing household renewable energy installations meet the energy needs of their residents and what factors encourage their installation. In addition, barriers limiting energy transition as perceived by household members were identified. The research used data from the EUROSTAT and the results of surveys conducted using the CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) and PAPI (Paper and Pencil Interview) techniques among households in Poland. The methods of descriptive statistics, the chi-square test of independence, the Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA test, the Mann–Whitney U test and logistic regression were used to analyze the research results. The analyses show that fossil fuels dominate in energy production in Poland. The share of renewable energy sources in the gross final energy consumption in 2020 was 16.1%. Their structure is dominated by photovoltaic installations with a share of 52%. Further increase in energy prices and fears of interruptions in energy supplies will favor the further increase in the number of installations for renewable energy sources. According to the respondents, the energy efficiency has a significant impact on the quality of life and environment, but the main barriers to its development include financial constraints of households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generating energy from renewable sources is becoming more and more popular and widespread. Air source heat pumps are one of the most popular types of heat pumps due to the general availability of a heat source and relatively low investment costs. The aim of the paper was to investigate the impact of the use of air heat pumps on the improvement of energy efficiency of Silesian Botanical Garden facilities in Poland. Year-round numerical analyses of energy consumption were carried out with the use of IDA ICE software, based on data received from the facility administrator. Different variants of the boiler room configuration including air-to-water heat pumps were analysed. The results showed that implementation of heat pumps led to significant decrease of energy consumption in the building and reduction of values of Primary Energy and CO2 emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving energy efficiency includes a number of measures implemented as part of the greening of the energy industry, which in turn is a prerequisite for the creation of a sustainable energy industry to ensure energy and environmental security for the world. Despite the adoption of the EU directives on energy efficiency, there is still insufficient public awareness in this area in Poland and Slovakia. This is particularly surprising because improving energy efficiency not only brings national and global benefits, but also has a significant impact on the well-being of individuals and households. The main purpose of the paper is to analyze the national policies of Poland and Slovakia, which are based on the European Directive 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency, and which introduce new measures aimed not only at increasing energy efficiency, but also at increasing the well-being of households and individuals. Methods of desk research and content analysis were used. The current situation in both countries is illustrated by case studies that document the administrative process (Slovakia) and the calculation of energy savings (Poland) when using renewable energy sources in the case of family houses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to identify the state of residential buildings in terms of energy consumption and modernisation in Poland against the background of the EU, and to determine factors and activities increasing households′ interest in net-zero energy buildings. In the European Union, we are observing a tendency to increase the energy efficiency of buildings, including residential, and decarbonise building stock by 2050. The objective of the undertaken activities is to reduce energy use and the negative impacts of the use of buildings on the environment. Attaining this objective requires modernising many buildings. This dissertation includes an investigation into the condition of buildings in Poland from the aspect of energy use and the kind of carriers of this energy, and also into another issue: what factors and activities may increase society′s interest in net-zero energy buildings, and in the use of energy from renewable sources in residential buildings. The studies were conducted with the use of the data provided by the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT, and also of the reports of the European Commission, the data of the Central Emission Register of Buildings (CERB) and the Odysse–Mure database. An important source of information was also surveys conducted with the application of CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview), and also of PAPI (Paper and Pencil Interview), among 387 households in Poland. For the purpose of analysing the results of the studies, the methods of descriptive statistics, the chi-square test of independence, the ANOVA test of Kruskal–Wallis and the Mann–Whitney U-test were used. The analysis gives rise to the conclusion that, in residential buildings, household′s annual primary energy demand is dependent on the year in which a building was commissioned. Newer buildings can boast smaller heat energy use. Simultaneously, ever more households are undertaking activities that will result in the thermal modernisation of residential buildings. The studies have shown that the development of net-zero energy buildings requires undertaking activities in the scope of introducing allowances and subsidies, and also increasing social awareness in the scope of this kind of building. Interest in buildings using solely renewable energy sources is contributed to by raising energy prices, and also the falling prices of required installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A contemporary challenge for the construction industry is to develop a technology based on natural building materials which at the same time provides high energy efficiency. This paper presents the results of an airtightness test and a thermal imaging study of a detached house built with technology using cross laminated dowelled timber panels. The thermal conductivity coefficients of the wood wool used to insulate the walls and ceiling of the building have also been measured, the linear heat transfer coefficients of the structural nodes have been numerically determined, and calculations have been made regarding the energy efficiency of the building. On the basis of the research, it was found that the air exchange rate in the analyzed building n50 is at the level of 4.77 h−1. Air leaks were also observed in the places of connection of longitudinal walls with the roof and at the junction of window frames with external walls. The experimentally determined thermal conductivity coefficient of the wood wool was ~10% higher than that declared by the manufacturer. Calculations for the energy performance certificate showed that an increase of ~10% in the thermal conductivity coefficient of the wood wool used to insulate the building results in a heating demand increase of 2.1%. It was also found that changing the value of the parameter n50 from 1.0 h−1 to 4.77 h−1 leads to a 40.1% increase in heat demand for heating the building. At the same time, the indicators for final energy demand EK and non-renewable primary energy demand EP increase by 18.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland remains the most coal-dependent economy in the EU. To minimize that problem, which is particularly clear and dangerous in the period of a shortage of fossil fuels, the Polish authorities have decided to establish various institutions, organizational and regulatory solutions. Their role is to support the development of renewable energy sources and local energy communities. The latter are to focus on optimizing the production and consumption of energy in pursuit of energy self-sufficiency on a local scale. One such institution, set up in Poland over the last several years, is the energy cooperative, which is intended to increase the efficient use of the potential of renewable energy sources in rural and urban–rural areas. The authors of this article verify the assumptions, for instance, the number, composition or production and members' consumption profiles, under which such a relatively new institution has the chance to develop. A novelty in this research paper is that the interests of the entities composing a given energy cooperative may additionally be secured by the use of surplus generation for crypto-coin mining, and thus the storage of energy in virtual currency. A dedicated mathematical model in mixed-integer programming technology was used, enriched with respect to previous research, making it possible for members of the cooperative to achieve energy independence while maximizing self-consumption and using their excess energy for processing cryptocurrency. This is in line with the global trend of "greening"; the processes of acquiring electronic money. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors compare the energy consumption and CO2 emissions from vehicles using internal combustion engines (ICE), battery electric vehicles (BEV), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), and two types of hybrid vehicles, BEV-ICE hybrid and BEV-FCEV hybrid. This paper considers several scenarios for four countries' electricity production from primary energy sources to estimate total CO2 release. Energy consumption of the vehicle per 100 km, emissions during manufacturing, battery production, and lifecycle of the vehicle are considered in the total amount evaluation of CO2 released. The results show that with current technologies for battery manufacturing, and a significant proportion of national grid electricity delivered by fossil fuels, BEV is the best choice to reduce carbon emissions for shorter driving ranges. In the case of electricity generation mainly by low-carbon sources, FCEV and BEV-FCEV hybrid vehicles end up with lower carbon dioxide emissions. In contrast, with electricity mainly generated from fossil fuels, electric vehicles do not reduce CO2 emissions compared to combustion cars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analyses presented in the publication allowed, on the basis of the data collected, development of an econometric model for the Polish steel industry from the point of view of the relationship between heat and energy management in the steel production process. The developed model is the main novelty of the paper. The main objective of the study was to develop an econometric model of Poland's heat and energy economy. The following research questions were raised: Is there an econometric model describing heat consumption (intensity) in the steel industry in Poland in relation to steel production and the energy economy? What are the relations between heat intensity and energy prices and steel production in Poland? How might the current energy crisis affect steel production? In the analysis we used data of energy and heat management in the Polish steel industry. An econometric model was developed of the dependence of heat consumption (Yt) on electricity prices (X1t) and steel production (X2t) in Poland. The authors took advantage of open access to data. Annual volumes of heat consumption in steel production processes in Poland were analysed as a function of the annual volume of steel production and the prices of electricity, which are consumed in technological processes in steel mills. We analyzed data for years 2004–2020. The analyses carried out showed that there is an inversely proportional relationship between electricity prices and the intensity of heat consumption by the steel industry. Research shows that rising energy prices lead to lower steel production. This is a dangerous phenomenon for the steel industry in the context of the current energy crisis caused by the pandemic and war in Ukraine. We think that the significance of our results is connected with the fact that the developed model is a useful analytical tool, as it not only allows the analysis of historical data, but can also be used to predict how steel industry parameters will change in the future under the influence of changes in external factors, such as energy prices. This gives a wide range of analytical possibilities for the use of the model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generation Z is gaining more and more importance in the market—not only is it attaining purchasing power, but it is also setting trends. This is the generation that spends a lot of time on various social media channels, and the content posted there is a source of information, inspiration and motivation for them. Its representatives are very skeptical about traditional marketing messages, so the best way to reach them is to use influencer marketing. They are also sensitive to environmental problems and ecology. For this reason, the purpose of this paper was to identify the possibility of using influencer marketing to promote green energy in the perspective of Generation Z in Poland. The CAWI method of research was carried out April–June 2022 on a sample of 533 people aged 18 to 26, selected using a quota method. The analysis used statistically significant structure indices (percentages) and measures of correlations between the variables. The results presented confirmed the enormous popularity of social media among the representatives of Generation Z, as well as the great involvement of young consumers in tracking the activity of influencers. More than half of the respondents indicated the usefulness of influencers promoting green energy, but at the same time the vast majority of them declared that the choice of green energy in their case was determined by the opinions of other people, and that the role of influencers was negligible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing impact of consumption on the environment has been attracting much attention from academics for the last couple of decades and has caused inquiries into the antecedents of responsible consumption. Previous studies focused on analyzing different antecedents of responsible consumption in various areas and contexts. However, very few studies investigated the antecedents of responsible consumption in the energy sector, and only a few referred to emerging European countries. The aim of the paper is to examine the effect of environmental awareness on responsible energy consumption. Data for this study have been collected using the survey methodology. A total of 1407 households were selected as a sample for the CAWI methods of gathering data. The territory of the study population is Poland. The methodology of research involves several measurement scales of theoretical constructs. The constructs′ reliability coefficients, as well as discriminant and convergent validity indices, showed an adequate level of measurement quality. Based on reliable and valid latent variables, the comparative analysis of mediated path models with moderated mediation is estimated. Structural causal modeling with d-separation check and sensitivity analysis of indirect causal paths is applied to test the causal research hypothesis under study. The research results confirm the significant mediational role of mobilizing attitude and environmental awareness in explaining relationships between perceived consumer effectiveness and energy efficiency and curtailment behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a necessity to combine the development of the European Union with a model of a sustainable economy, which is important to stimulate eco-innovation. The government of each member state is obliged to create support mechanisms that will encourage entrepreneurs to implement pro-environmental solutions. This requires the identification of determinants for eco-innovation. This paper identifies and compares conditions of eco-innovation in two sectors in Poland: ICT (information and communication technologies) and industry. Putting together many different types of conditions into one model (including government, science, industry, and ICT) allows us to explain what is more important when making a decision about implementing new eco-solutions. The study covered over 3000 enterprises. Stepwise logit regression was used to examine all relationships of interest. We discovered two separate (independent) paths of approach to eco-innovation for ICT and industry. This means that another condition should be fulfilled to reach any eco-innovation in each of the sectors. There are just a few factors supporting new environmental solutions in ICT with strong impact—cooperation with suppliers, journals as a source of new knowledge, or financial support by credit institutions with high materials and energy efficiency at the end of the process. Industry could be described more like a horizontal approach—a wide number of conditions with low impact on eco-innovation. Therefore, innovation policies in the catching-up country should be more sophisticated and take care of more relevant tools for both sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently in Europe, road freight transport is characterized by the most dynamic advancement. Year after year, we may observe an increase in the amount of transported goods. The paper presents the emissions of gaseous exhaust components such as CO, THC, and NOx as well as fuel consumption in freight transport. The emission analysis was performed for the entire transport cycle covering the handling of the goods with forklifts and carriage with a heavy-duty truck. The investigations were performed under actual conditions of operation using a Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS). The fuel mileage was determined using the carbon balance method. The test routes were designed so as to reproduce the transport-logistic system typical of small towns. The setting for the tests was a town located in central Poland near the A2 motorway constituting part of the trans-European logistic network with multiple locations of logistic centers. In order to present the real emissions during handling, two test variants were considered: an outdoor variant (on a nearby lot) and inside a warehouse. The test run of the heavy-duty truck involved transporting 24,000 kg of load on urban and extra-urban (local and intercity) roads. The exhaust emissions and fuel mileage were determined for each of the stages as well as for the entire research cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biofuels are becoming more important in the renewable energy sources mix. Liquid biofuels are products of agriculture. Bioethanol can be prepared from corn, beetroot and other plants. Biodiesel is mainly made from rapeseed. This paper presents information about biodiesel development in Poland, as well as some background information about its development in the European Union (EU). We analyzed the data about biofuels in the literature, and provide statistical data about liquid biofuel in Poland and other countries of the EU. The aim of the study is to assess the viability of liquid biofuel development in Poland. The base for biodiesel production in Poland and the EU is rapeseed. The production yields and sown area of rapeseed increased in Poland from 2005–2020. This was due to integration and European Union policies which aim to supply clean energy. The energy mix in Poland differs from that of the EU. Solid biofuels have made up the biggest share of renewable energy sources in Poland (73.4%) and the EU (40.1%). Poland has smaller share of wind energy, biogas, heat pump, water energy, solar anergy, municipal waste and geothermal energy in its renewable energy sources compared to the rest of the EU. Only with solid and liquid biofuels is the share of renewable energy sources larger in Poland compared to the EU averages. Poland has decreased its share of solid biofuels and water energy among its renewable energy sources, while other sources have increased. Poland is investing to increase its renewable energy sources. To analyze the opportunities for biodiesel production in Poland, we used the scenario method of analysis. We outlined three scenarios. The first is increasing the production of biodiesel by 3% each year for the next three years. The second is production remains unchanged, i.e., at the 2020 level. The last scenario is decreasing production by 3% each year. According to the first scenario, the total demand for rapeseed for energy and food purposes will be 375 thousand tons in 2025. Such a scenario is very likely to occur because of the growing demand for biodiesel and edible oil. The current situation with Ukraine and the Russian Federation will create an increase in demand for rapeseed, leading to higher prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the changes in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions related to energy consumption in the Polish agricultural sector between 2000 and 2019. Based on the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI), the changes in agricultural CO2 emissions are viewed in the context of changes in six factors, i.e., CO2 emission intensity, substitution of fossil fuels, penetration of renewable energies, energy intensity, labor productivity and number of employees. The analysis demonstrated that total energy consumption declined over the study period; this was related to a reduction in the intake of energy derived from solid fossil fuels (−1.05%), crude oil (−1.01%), electricity (−4.89%), and heat (−1.37%), and to an increased consumption of natural gas (5.78%) and biofuels (0.82%). Furthermore, it follows from the analysis that changes in CO2 emissions witnessed in that period were consistent with changes in energy consumption levels; this resulted from a negligible transformation of the energy mix (largely determined by fossil fuels). Generally, CO2 emissions declined over the study period at a rate comparable (−0.9%) to that of the reduction in energy consumption (−1.03%). In light of the LMDI method, the reduction in CO2 emissions from fuel consumption in the Polish agricultural sector was mainly driven by a reduction in energy intensity and in employment. Conversely, rapid growth in labor productivity was the key factor in increasing carbon dioxide emissions. Compared to these impacts, changes in other factors (i.e., emission intensity, energy mix and penetration of renewable energies) had an extremely small or marginal effect on the variation in CO2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last few years, Poland has experienced a significant increase in photovoltaic (PV) installations. A noticeable contribution to this dynamic growth belongs to the prosumers. This paper presents the energy efficiency analysis of nine prosumers' PV installations located in South-Eastern Poland. Eight of the systems are grid-connected and one is a hybrid (PV with the energy storage). New technology modules with efficiencies between 19% and 21%, as well as various PV system configurations related to orientation and tilt, were taken into consideration. Final yields were found and a financial assessment was presented. The average annual specific yield of all analyzed PV systems was found to be 990.2 kWh/kWp. The highest ratio of yearly energy production was noted for the system of bifacial monocrystalline silicon modules with 20.3% efficiency (1102.9 kWh/kWp). Median and maximum yields obtained by this system for the best insolation month (June 2021) were 6.64 kWh/kWp and 7.88 kWh/kWp respectively. The annual specific yield of other systems ranged between 868.8 kWh/kWp and 1075.5 kWh/kWp in dependency on module efficiency, system orientation, or tilt angle. The amount of energy produced in the summer half-year was found to be significantly higher (between 76% and 83% depending on the system) than in the winter period. The self-consumption ratio of the energy produced by the PV system installed for company prosumers ranged from about 50% in the summer months to almost 97% in winter. The payback period was below 8 years with the levelized cost of electricity equal to 0.14 €/kWh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind energy (WE), which is one of the renewable energy (RE) sources for generating electricity, has been making a significant contribution to obtaining clean and green energy in recent years. Fitting an appropriate statistical distribution to the wind speed (WS) data is crucial in analyzing and estimating WE potential. Once the best suitable statistical distribution for WS data is determined, WE potential and potential yield could be estimated with high accuracy. The main objective of this paper is to propose a novel approach for calculating wind energy potential. For this purpose, the Efficient Global Optimization (EGO) technique was proposed for fitting a statistical distribution to WS data and the performance of the technique was compared with genetic algorithm (GA), simulated annealing (SA), and differential evolution (DE). Performance metrics showed that EGO is providing better estimations compared with GA, SA, and DE. Based on Weibull parameters obtained by using EGO, potential WE and potential annual revenue were estimated for Gdańsk, which is the capital of Pomerania Voivodeship in Poland, in the case of having city-type wind turbines in the city center. Estimations for Gdańsk showed that city-type wind turbines might be helpful for producing electricity from WE in the city without being limited by constraints such as having a long distance between wind turbines and buildings. If such wind turbines were erected on the roofs of residential buildings, malls, or office buildings, there is a possibility that part of the electric energy needed for such buildings could be generated using WE. However, this topic should be further investigated from technical and financial perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to propose a method of reconfiguring the train timetable, taking into account minimising the globally consumed energy for traction purposes. This is a very important issue in the context of rising electricity prices, alarming climate changes and the "Fit for 55" policy introduced in Europe. Each unit of energy saved contributes to improving the state of the planet and reducing the negative human impact on it. In this paper, the authors propose a model that, when applied, will reconfigure the timetable in terms of energy intensity and, as a result, reduce the impact of railways on the burden on the environment. It is proposed to introduce an interdependence between trajectories of electrical train movement. This interdependence is to take place so that it is possible to efficiently transfer the energy recovered during the braking of one train to another train, moving on the same section of the railway line and at the same time (i.e., without using energy storage devices). The paper provides a physical background to the considerations—discussing the movement of electric trains in the context of their energy intensity and the possibility of energy recovery; presenting the possibility of interconnecting trains in such a way that the energy from a train that is being braked can be efficiently used by a train that is being accelerated; presenting a method for making the linkages between trains (in the form of an original algorithm resulting from the application of the Delphi method) and implementing them in the timetable. The timetable for the application of the method is real and was obtained from the railway operator in Poland, as a mathematical–physical model describing the trajectory and energy consumption of the original, after which the proposed timetable was verified by running simulations and comparing the energy consumption of the original and the proposed timetable. It turned out that it is possible to achieve a global total energy demand reduction of up to 398 MWh/year. This proves the validity of using the proposed algorithm at the timetabling stage and extending its implementation to the entire network. Furthermore the authors also recognise the tendency of the algorithm to return repeatable solutions, which has the side effect of creating a cyclic timetable. Its implementation in Poland has proved impossible for many years. The application of the proposed method could change this unfavourable situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an analytical discussion of how to improve the energy efficiency of the steam cushion system operation for a Thermal Energy Storage (TES) tank. The EU's green deal 2050 target policy requires an increase in the energy efficiency of energy production and use, as well as an increase in the share of renewable energy in the overall energy production balance. The use of energy-efficient TES is considered as one of the most important technologies to achieve the objectives of this EU policy. The analyses presented in the paper of energy-efficient operation of steam cushion (SC) systems were carried out by using operational data received from three District Heating Systems (DHSs) that supply heat and electricity to one of the largest cities in Poland and are equipped with the TES systems. These three analyzed TESs differ in capacities from 12,800 to 30,400 m3, tank diameters from 21 to 30 m and shell height from 37 to 48.2 m. The main purpose of using a steam cushion system in the TES tank is to protect the water stored in it against the absorption of oxygen from the surrounding atmospheric air through the surge chamber and safety valves located on the roof of the tank. The technical solutions presented here for the upper orifice for charging and discharging hot water into/from the tank and the suction pipe for circulating water allow to us achieve significant energy savings in the steam cushion systems. Both the upper orifice and the end of suction pipe are movable through the use of pontoons. Thanks to the use of this technical solution, a stable insulating water layer is created above the upper orifice in the upper part of the TES tank, where convective and turbulent transport of heat from the steam cushion space to the hot water stored in the tank is significantly limited. Ultimately, this reduces the heat flux by approximately 90% when compared to the classic technical solutions of steam cushion systems in TES tanks, i.e., for the upper orifice and circulation water pipe. The simplified analysis presented in the paper and comparison of its results with experimental data for heat flow from the steam cushion space to hot water stored in the upper part of the TES tank fully confirms the usefulness of the heat-flow models used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formula of engaging an energy service company (ESCO) in Poland is not a new form of accounting for investments in improving energy efficiency. The results of our survey confirm that many entities still lack sufficient knowledge about this subject. The research problem this paper is concerned with is the conditions of applying the ESCO formula (a model of investment financing with the participation of a specialised company) to support local government units and enterprises in energy-industry project development. For the purpose of this study, the research questions were formulated to analyse of the following issues: the reasons for interest in the ESCO formula and the sources of knowledge about this solution; activities and other factors that can increase or reduce interest in the ESCO formula; services in terms of ESCO formula implementation; the attractiveness of alternative instruments for financing energy industry projects, the benefits of using the ESCO formula and the influence of current and future target groups on ESCO formula development in Poland. This paper, therefore aims to recognise the conditions under which the ESCO formula can be applied by local government units and enterprises implementing energy industry projects in Poland. The research problem was solved using a triangulation of research methods: empirical qualitative research (desk research analysis, individual in-depth interviews, computer-assisted web interview (CAWI) survey, and focus group interviews) and one of the foresight methods (an expert panel). The research revealed that the lack of knowledge amongst local government units and enterprises with regard to the ESCO formula, although not unique to Poland, is insufficient to explain the low level of interest in this solution. One of the key conclusions is the need to educate local government units and enterprises on energy efficiency. This is vital to arouse their interest in the more complex ESCO implementation solutions that they have not yet investigated. Furthermore, by following and analysing the project implementation process in the ESCO formula, we can conclude that the risk generated is primarily on the part of the energy service company itself. For this reason, it is doubtful that energy service companies will invest the equity necessary to develop this challenging market. Based on the research conclusions, we indicate some recommendations that the government and related public institutions should consider in order to boost this market and support ESCO companies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper deals with issues related to activities undertaken by local government. The article focuses on the identification and assessment of the significance of local government's different bottom-up initiatives that support development of local entrepreneurship. The article also indirectly discusses the importance of activities referring to energy efficiency. Through the digitization process and by using digital tools, LGs realize projects, improve local actors' awareness, and finally achieve new challenges such as a higher proportion of gross final energy consumption being from renewable sources. The aim of the paper is to present the relationship between the LGs' entrepreneurial activities, which we call bottom-up initiatives, and the local entrepreneurship level, understood as the number of entrepreneurs active on the territory of a LG. This paper presents the results of research carried out on the bottom-up initiatives undertaken by Polish local governments to support entrepreneurship. The research was based on survey and statistical tools and stepwise regression analysis. In the paper, bottom-up initiatives undertaken by local governments (such as organizing events at the national or regional scale that enable networking among entrepreneurs or establishing departments for supporting local entrepreneurship that offer cooperation with local entrepreneurs) were found to influence the number of entrepreneurs active in local government territories. The paper concludes that local governments and their bottom-up activities are an important factor influencing local entrepreneurship development. The presented research results have implications for policy makers and may be useful for local governments in Poland and in other countries in the context of supporting entrepreneurship by undertaking bottom-up initiatives at the local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides the analysis of fuel and energy transition in households sector and its sustainable development in the period 2004–2019. The main purpose of the paper is to determine the development trends in the use of renewable energy sources (RES) in the EU countries household sector in 2004–2019, to recognize the state of development and functioning of the studied area as well as to indicate their successes and shortcomings in observed reality. The article employs the results of Energy balance sheets from Eurostat. The research entity were households from 28 European Union countries, with particular emphasis on households from Poland and selected neighboring countries. The research subjects there were different sources of renewable energy used by households, i.e., solar thermal system, geothermal technologies, primary solid biofuels, charcoal, biogases, blended biogasoline, blended biodiesels, ambient heat (heat pumps). To achieve the research objective a number of statistical measures ands methods, including cluster analysis and linear trend indicator applied. In the analyzed 16 years, an absolute and relative increase in the use of RES in the household sector was noticed. Taking into account the specificity of using RES in households, 6 clusters of countries were distinguished. In Poland, it was noted that there was a significant increase in the use of RES in households, with stagnation in the use of non-renewable energy sources, such as, for example, hard coal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the basic objectives of the European Union's energy policy is to obtain and use energy in a sustainable way. Multiple-criteria decision making (MCDM) methods, in particular linear ordering based on the synthetic variable procedure, are used for comparative analyses of the level of energy sustainability. Despite many studies, the problem of choosing the optimal ordering method is still not fully resolved. This paper presents an original procedure that facilitates the selection of an effective method of the linear ordering of multi-feature objects for the evaluation of sustainable energy development of regions. What is understood as the effective ordering of regions is not only the effective ranking of objects but also their effective clustering. In order to obtain the best results of linear ordering, the authors put forward a multi-stage optimization of the selection of the method of ordering and normalization of diagnostic variables. Analysis of variance was used for the assessment of the object ranking quality, while for the assessment of the object clustering quality, an innovative approach was presented based on the analysis of the empirical distribution of the frequency of occurrence of the distance between objects. The linear ordering method, selected on the basis of the procedure proposed in the paper, was used to assess the energy sustainability of Polish regions. The calculations and analyses were carried out using the set of indicators developed by the authors. They characterize the sustainable energy development of regions in the social, economic, and environmental dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts toward a low-emission economy constitute a common challenge for Polish cities. Solutions are being sought to support Polish, medium-sized cities, that is, cities with about 140,000 inhabitants, to implement and develop low-carbon energy in their public transport systems. This paper proposes and explores a sustainable urban development card for a Polish city, namely, Zielona Góra, the use of which will enable the effects of a public transport system using low-carbon energy to be monitored. This research was based on the two main areas of analysis of a system of low-carbon energy and public transport and were formulated as: (1) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and (2) Indicators of the Satisfaction Rate of Public Transport Passengers (SPTP). This paper used literature studies to determine SDGs as well a questionnaire-cum-survey, which was conducted on a sample of 1022 public transport passengers in Zielona Góra, Poland, to determine SPTP. The results were verified by a real case study of a Polish city, which, in 2019, had the largest fleet of electric buses in Poland; a statistical analysis was also conducted using correlation coefficients. It was determined that the proposed approach allows for low carbon energy public transport to be constantly monitored and analyzed. In the long run, this could be a good benchmark as to how cities might improve their level of sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Granite is one of those materials that due to its thermal parameters is used as a filling for storage beds, including high-temperature ones. The article analyzes local material that was extracted in Strzegom, Poland. The purpose of the paper is the assessment of storage material with regard to its cooperation with a heat source that is available for a short time, e.g., a solar installation. Three different shapes of granite material were tested: rock, cube and sphere. Each shape has its advantages and disadvantages, which are associated with economic and strength aspects. The article presents experimental tests of the material, which were conducted in order to determine the efficiency of the charging process. The results show that rock-shaped granite filling elements are characterized with the best parameters during the charging process, and that they obtained the highest first- and second-law efficiency in the entire tested range of inlet air temperature and flow rate. The efficiency of the cube-shaped granite was lower than the sphere-shaped granite. This means that the efficiency does not directly depend on the coefficient of sphericity of the elements that fill the storage bed. The determination of the second law efficiency showed that the highest use of energy supplied with hot air occurs after 1 h of charging the accumulator in the case of all the analyzed geometries. At the end of the paper, the influence of the obtained results on the process of modelling the charging of a storage bed filled with elements of non-spherical geometry is also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present the state of development of renewable energy sources (RES) in Poland in accordance with the obligations of European Union energy policy. The EU Member States are obliged to adopt different support mechanisms for the development of renewable energy sources, and in consequence to achieve their Directive's targets. Poland, being a Member State of the EU since 2004, has accepted a target of a 15% share of energy generated from renewable energy sources in final energy consumption, including 19.3% from renewable electricity until 2020. Due to the difficulties with target achievement, the authors found it reasonable to analyze the challenge of RES development in Poland. The article presents energy policy in the EU, as well as the review of measures implemented for renewable energy development. The current state of and perspectives on using renewable energy sources in Poland and in the EU are also depicted. In the article, the authors analyze the relation between reference prices at dedicated RES auctions in Poland and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). The paper also provides a description of the renewable energy sources' development in three areas: electricity, heat and transport biofuels. Its main content, though, refers to the generation of electricity from renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the analysis of an energy management system (EMS) implemented to fulfill the requirements of a microgrid (MG) power supply owned by a small industrial company and connected to the rural power system. The main goal of this system is to ensure connection with the existing rural power system in terms of energy exchange, as well as to perform islanding mode operation of the microgrid based on the energy demand of the company. Power generated in the implemented microgrid is based on a hybrid system supported by renewable energy sources and an energy storage system. The aim of the developed energy management system implemented in this MG power system is to enable the microgrid to operate according to scheduled diagrams related to different load events. The presented investigation, analysis, and assessment of the implemented energy management system are based on the on-site measurements and observations of the long-term operation of the microgrid concerning the hybrid renewable energy-based generation system and the company energy demand, which is useful from perspective of the predicted deficiency of electrical energy in Poland, both for customers and transmission system operators. Furthermore, the observed drawbacks and failures of the implemented EMS and the MG are pointed out and discussed to overcome and minimize these disadvantages, and to improve the operational reliability of the whole system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous analyses of the PV market (and the impact of the pandemic on it) have focused on the market as a whole. The literature does not contain analyses of selected services sectors (e.g., catering, hotel services) in terms of the use of photovoltaics. There are no studies that would show in which segments the demand profile for electricity most closely matches the production from photovoltaic installations (not to mention the impact of the pandemic). The authors analyzed selected service sectors (catering and hotel) in terms of the use of photovoltaics before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper proposes a comparative methodology for the use of photovoltaics for self-consumption, including statistical analyses and calculations of the self-consumption index for representatives of various selected services sectors. The highest value of the self-consumption ratio at the level of 52% was shown for cafes and restaurants (during the pandemic). Surprisingly, in the pandemic, the self-consumption rate increased for restaurants and cafes for the same size of installations (compared to pre-pandemic times). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of the paper was to develop an innovative approach to the preliminary estimation possibility of train energy cooperation based on data from timetables, without traction calculations. The article points out the need to strive for sustainable and environmentally friendly transport. It was pointed out that rail transport using electric traction is one of the more ecological branches of transport. It also offers a number of possibilities for improving energy efficiency and reducing energy consumption, one of which is the recovery and reuse of energy lost in the electrodynamic braking process. The main ways in which such energy can be used are listed, but the focus is mainly on the aspect of the so-called "energy cooperation" of trains. Then, the current state of the research and knowledge on the narrowed scope of rail traffic management and recuperative braking in rail transportation is presented; an innovative approach to the indirect optimization of the amount of recuperated electrical energy immediately usable by another vehicle by maximizing the duration of energy co-optimization is proposed; and the authors' function is proposed to enable optimization, taking into account various parameters. The optimization was performed with the use of a proprietary, multi-criteria objective function and the Solver optimization module. Finally, the results obtained using the proposed approach are presented and illustrated with the example of train timetables used by some of the largest railway stations in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The steel sector is crucial for the national economy of Poland and the global economy. In response to the challenges of the global steel market and the need to increase the sector's competitiveness, a number of actions have been taken to increase the energy efficiency of steel production. Based on the synthesis of the literature and our own research, we describe the issues related to energy efficiency and the Industry 4.0 concept. The main aim of this paper is to identify energy efficiency trends in enterprises, especially those that focus on increasing the energy efficiency of production processes, and to make recommendations for investment policy for the Polish steel sector in the era of Industry 4.0. To achieve our goals and answer the research question, we used data from 2000–2019 for the Polish steel industry. The calculations and models in this paper were made by using Gretl software. Using direct research, an econometric model was built that verified the hypothesis regarding the relationship between investment in new technologies and the energy efficiency of steel production. Future investment policies should take the implementation of Industry 4.0 tools in the steel sector into account, which, according to the authors, will measurably improve energy efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper studies the problem of assessing the vehicle energy efficiency on the streets of urban road network. As a result of morphological analysis of the system "Vehicle—Traffic flow—Road—Traffic Environment" 18 significant morphological attributes of its functional elements, that affect the energy efficiency of vehicles, were identified. Each attribute is characterized by 3–6 implementation variants, which are evaluated by the relevant quantitative or qualitative parameters. The energy efficiency of vehicles is determined by the criteria of their energy consumption considering the vehicle category, type of energy unit, mode of vehicle movement and adjustment factors—road, climatic and others. The input parameters values of the system in the process of traffic flow on the linear fragments of streets and road networks of the cities of Ukraine and Poland were measured. The set of independent system parameters is determined by applying the Farrar-Glober method based on statistical estimates. The specified set is the basis of the studied system and is formed of 10 independent input parameters. The presence in the basis of parameters that correspond to the morphological features of all four functional elements, confirmed the importance of these elements of the system. The mathematical dependence of the impact of vehicle characteristics, traffic flow, road and environment on vehicle energy efficiency is built. The standard deviation of the model values from the tabular ones equals σ ´ = 0.0091 . Relative standard deviation equals S ´ r = 1.5 % . The results of the study could be used in the development of new and optimization of existing intelligent traffic control systems of urban transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an evaluation of the stranding risks of coal in Poland. Combining an industrial organization and financial analysis approach, we assess the current economic situation of companies operating within the coal industry and draft forecasts for the future. Based on the global economic outlook for coal, we claim that phasing-out coal will take at least two decades, due to the slow transformation of the energy sector and increasing energy demand. The financial evaluation of coal-dependent companies revealed sound financial conditions due to favorable trends in coal prices in international markets. Therefore, instead of prioritizing a rapid phasing-out of coal, we pledge to make more technological investments that would make burning coal less harmful for the planet and thus efficiently mitigate the negative effects of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]