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Explores the maintenance goals and practices at 18th-century paper mills in Europe. Survey of paper manufacture; Influence of technologies; Pervasive operate-to-failure style; Regular minor repairs; Postponed major renovations; Rational choices in market context; Weakness of mills; Annual maintenance spending; Estimated lifespan of the equipment of a paper mill.

This paper explores the history of castle studies in German-speaking Europe, and the related transformations of castle researchers' idea of Europe from 1918 to 1945. The study of castles was particularly popular in German-speaking regions at that time, and many castle researchers advocated nationalist and pan-Germanic ideas of Europe. After World War I, these ideas were radicalized, and scholars collaborated with Nazi organizations on the ethnic reordering of Europe. After the end of World War II castle researchers transformed their Germanocentric ideas into a more liberal concept of Europe, reflecting the establishment of a European scientific community of medieval archaeologists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses market in Cádiz, Spain and epidemic in Europe. Topics discussed include history of Marseille, France, bubonic plague in the city and French epidemic. Other topics which includes crisis management, European diplomacy and disease control policy of Spain are also discussed. Health inspections are mentioned.

The article disucsses the use of the human anatomical models as medical technology tools in Europe from 1700 through 1900. An overview of the anatomical models' designs, including its role in aiding medical students and physicians memorize human anatomy, is discussed. The role that the French doctor Louis Thomas Jerome Auzoux played in developing animal and human anatomical models is discussed. An overview of the advertising of anatomical models is also provided.

The article disucsses the use of steel trusses to treat ruptures, or hernias, in 18th century Europe. The role that the surgeon, watchmaker and toyware business owner William Blakey played in constructing steel trusses is discussed. An overview of the social aspects of steels trusses, including their ability to allow patients to self-medicate and the steel truss trade, is provided.

The article discusses the discovery of a Latin language non-autograph transcription manuscript of the book "Ethica" ("Ethics") by the philosopher Benedictus de Spinoza found in the Apostolic Vatican Library, published as "The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza's 'Ethica,'" edited by Pina Totaro and Leen Spruit. Topics include a complaint with the Roman Catholic Church Inquisition against Spinoza by scientist Niels Stensen, the editing of the manuscript by copyist Peter van Gent, and European intellectual life during the 17th century.

The article discusses the role of scientist Marin Mersenne as a translator and interpreter of the works of astronomer Galileo Galilei. Topics include Mersenne's social connections within Europe's scientific community, the opinions of the Roman Catholic Church regarding Copernicanism, and the personal hostility of Galileo toward Mersenne.

From 1917 to 1923, the American Red Cross organized an array of long-term child health projects in Europe as part of its larger wartime and postwar humanitarian efforts. Across the continent, the organization established child health clinics, better baby shows, playgrounds, fresh air camps, and courses for women on infant and child hygiene. Hundreds of U.S. doctors, nurses, and other child welfare professionals traveled to Europe to administer these programs. These activities call attention to American efforts to reform the health of European youth and, in so doing, to reshape European medicine and European society more broadly. Moreover, they suggest the importance of child-centered medical relief--and the history of medicine more broadly--to the history of U.S. foreign relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the Enlightenment in Ireland during the 1790s, with a particular focus on the political organization the Society of United Irishmen founded by Theobald Wolfe Tone. The relationship between freemasonry and the Society of United Irishmen, including in regard to their perspectives on the Catholic Church in Ireland, is discussed. The relationship between the political philosopher John Locke and the Society of United Irishmen, including in regard to property rights and citizenship, is also discussed. An overview of the influence that the American deist and political philosopher Thomas Paine had on the United Irishmen is provided.

A literary criticism is presented for the biography "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Late Charles O’Conor, of Belanagare, Esq., M.R.I.A.," by Charles O'Conor. Particular focus is given to the portrayal of the book's subject as an Irish Catholic patriot during the Irish Enlightenment who faced discrimination under anti-Catholic laws in Ireland.

The article discusses the use of agriculture and livestock during the colonization of the U.S., focusing on economic aspects. It examines the trade between Europe, South America and the colonies, called the Great Exchange, and its effect on medicine, zoology and food. It describes the crops grown by Native Americans, such as corn, sweet potatoes and peppers, tomatoes introduced by the Spanish, and livestock originating in Europe.

Reports that commercial history of early modern Europe has attracted a heightened degree of interdisciplinary inquiry, with renewed interest in merchant mentality. Attempt of historians to reconcile `the dreary science' with cultural and literary history; Use of didactic handbooks intended for merchants; Iconization of commodities as a siren call for wealth.