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Worldwide about 550 hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) were in operation in 2021, of which 38% were in Europe. With their number expected to grow even further, the collection and investigation of real-world station operative data are fundamental to tracking their activity in terms of safety issues, performances, maintenance, reliability, and energy use. This paper analyses the parameters that characterize the refueling of 350 bar fuel cell buses (FCB) in five HRS within the 3Emotion project. The HRS are characterized by different refueling capacities, hydrogen supply schemes, storage volumes and pressures, and operational strategies. The FCB operate over various duty cycles circulating on urban and extra-urban routes. From data logs provided by the operators, a dataset of four years of operation has been created. The results show a similar hydrogen amount per fill distribution but quite different refueling times among the stations. The average daily mass per bus and refueling time are around 14.62 kg and 10.28 min. About 50% of the total amount of hydrogen is dispensed overnight, and the refueling events per bus are typically every 24 h. On average, the buses' time spent in service is 10 h per day. The hydrogen consumption is approximately 7 kg/100 km, a rather effective result reached by the technology. The station utilization is below 30% for all sites, the buses availability hardly exceeds 80%. • Small/medium-sized hydrogen refueling stations performance analysis. • Investigation of fuel cell buses operation under real-world conditions. • Actual demand is lower than the planned maximum capacity suggesting future bus fleets ramp up potentiality. • On average, the fuel cell buses consume 7 kg H2 /100 km, meeting the EU targets. • The majority of the refuelings are performed overnight from 8 p.m. to 3 a.m. to secure capacity and availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen is often suggested as a universal fuel that can replace fossil fuels. This paper analyses the feasibility of direct hydrogen utilisation in all energy sectors in a 100% renewable energy system for Europe in 2050 using hour-by-hour energy system analysis. Our results show that using hydrogen for heating purposes has high costs and low energy efficiency. Hydrogen for electricity production is beneficial only in limited quantities to restrict biomass consumption, but increases the system costs due to losses. The transport sector results show that hydrogen is an expensive alternative to liquid e-fuels and electrified transport due to high infrastructure costs and respectively low energy efficiency. The industry sector may benefit from hydrogen to reduce biomass at a lower cost than in the other energy sectors, but electrification and e-methane may be more feasible. Seen from a systems perspective, hydrogen will play a key role in future renewable energy systems, but primarily as e-fuel feedstock rather than direct end-fuel in the hard-to-abate sectors. • Hour-by-hour energy system analysis for direct green hydrogen utilisation in Europe. • Hydrogen for industrial demands can lower biomass consumption. • Power production applications are costly and limited for hydrogen. • Hydrogen for heating is more expensive than heat pumps and district heating. • E-fuels should be the main application for hydrogen in the transport sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to study the impact of digitalization on energy efficiency in Europe, where institutions are committed to promote both digital transformation and energy transition by implementing the European Twin Transition, ETT [1]. The paper starts by empirically analysing the state of play of the Twin Transition across European Member States (MS) by mapping the Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), its sub-indices and the energy productivity. We then discuss the impact of the abovementioned digital indicators on energy productivity growth in 26 European MS during the period 2016–2020 by applying a system GMM model. The results show a significant and positive impact of digitalization on energy efficiency and relevant complementarities across diverse digitalization dimensions. This study contributes in an original manner to the literature by applying for the first time DESI and its sub-indices in a European twin transition analysis; moreover, empirical insights have important policy implications because all the variables considered are parts of the European policy targets. • This paper explores the impact of digitalization on energy efficiency. • A statistical investigation of twin transition across European MS is carried out. • DESI and its sub-indices have a positive and significant impact on energy productivity growth. • Potential complementarities exist among DESI sub-indices regarding their impact on energy productivity growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrofitting the building stock is pivotal to achieving climate neutrality by 2050. Most of the existing research on energy efficiency focuses on new residential buildings. The focus must shift to multi-building retrofits, thereby more frequently including non-residential buildings. As multi-building and non-residential projects are given a lighthouse role in achieving current global climate goals, more research should focus on this potential. This study covers single- and multi-building retrofitting projects. It also explores the role of non-residential projects, typical project settings, energy reduction achievements and the added complexity of the multi-building scale. The chosen methodology combines a systematic literature search with a subsequent critical metadata and full-text review of more than 80 peer-reviewed scientific papers. The results show that the number of studies in the research field has increased substantially in the last few years, while the research mostly originates from Europe and focuses on the residential building typology. This research is partly transferable to similar climate zones elsewhere, while a large proportion of climate zones remains unexplored. The current body of definitions and requirements regarding energy retrofitting is an impediment to the comparability of projects, and particularly the multi-building scale is in need of international guidance. Future research should focus on making retrofit measures more applicable internationally, while unifying project boundaries. The stronger inclusion of non-residential retrofitting projects as lighthouse projects including social aspects is needed. Retrofitting that covers energy production and sharing has great potential and should be seen as an opportunity. [Display omitted] • Multi-building retrofitting is emerging but requires clearer international guides. • Europe stands for most publications, motivated by policies and climate goals. • Most of the reported energy retrofits do not satisfy "deep retrofitting" goals. • Multi-building retrofitting results in added social and technical difficulties. • Clearer international guidelines and best practices needed to reach climate goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a methodology and an analysis applied to a real-life dataset, which refer to an extended period that lasted more than one year, pertaining to trips undertaken in Europe by more than one thousand vehicles. The results in this paper are an example of the detailed information that can be extracted from rough data to support the decisions of stakeholders and final users (e.g. car makers, authorities, drivers), as well as to understand which road vehicle features will be able to comply with the observed daily usage of automobiles. The main scope of the paper has been to focus on variables concerning the duration and lengths of trips, the idle times, and the energy consumed by engines. These variables have been correlated and compared with the current and expected hybrid and electric ranges of autonomy, as constrained by the present and next generation of electric batteries, both in terms of autonomy and time required for their recharging. Therefore, the aim of the study has been to find answers to the following research question: considering the daily mileage, actual fuel consumption and idle time structure, can hybrid and electric powertrains represent adequate alternatives to traditional engines, considering the present battery ranges and charging alternatives? Long distance trips have been analysed in detail to obtain a better understanding of whether they can be covered by electric cars in the same ways as they are with those based on internal combustion engines. In the extensive sample that has been analysed, in order to satisfy 99,9% of the daily trips, it would be necessary to raise the range to 400 km. This target could be reached by adopting a PHEV (plug-in) or a full-electric car with an equivalent range. This study provides a quantitative analysis of the energy needs, obtained over a wide range of usage of road vehicles, and attempts to correlate them with the opportunities of recovering energy during the idle time detected over real-life 24h driving cycles, assuming the availability of intermediate charges. Image 1 • Methodology applied to a real-life dataset of trips undertaken by more than one thousand vehicles. • Variables concerning the duration and lengths of trips, idle times and energy consumed are analysed. • Investigate on the battery based electric powertrains range required to replace traditional engines. • Evaluate the opportunities of recovering energy during the idle time detected over real-life 24h driving cycles. • Policy to powertrains compliant to actual driver behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A new adjacent accumulation non-homogeneous discrete grey model is proposed. • The proposed model was superior to the other four comparative models. • The consumption of renewable energy throughout Europe and the world was predicted. In this paper, a new adjacent non-homogeneous grey model was proposed to predict renewable energy consumption in Europe. Based on the principle of adjacent accumulation, the proposed model emphasizes the weight relationship between the latest value and the historical data. Meanwhile, the heuristic algorithm is used to optimize the parameters of the proposed model. The model's performance was tested by the examples from four central European countries, including Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland. In addition, the consumption of renewable energy in Europe and the world was predicted respectively, which showed that Europe's proportion of the world's renewable energy consumption will gradually decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To mitigate the effects of climate change, energy systems are becoming increasingly reliant on renewable energy sources. Since these energy sources are typically dependent on the prevailing weather, renewable energy systems are susceptible to shortages during certain weather conditions. As renewable sources become larger contributors to the energy mix, the risks associated with these shortages, referred to as energy droughts, increase. Techniques are therefore required that can help policymakers to understand and mitigate the impacts associated with energy droughts. In this paper, two standardised indices are introduced to monitor droughts in renewable energy systems. The indices incorporate energy demand and renewable energy production, and constitute analogues to the standardised precipitation index (SPI) and standardised precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI), two indices regularly employed operationally to monitor meteorological droughts. The indices are straightforward to construct, can be defined on any timescale, and facilitate comparisons between regions with different climates and installed capacities. We demonstrate how the standardised energy indices proposed herein can be used to define renewable energy droughts, and illustrate the practical utility of these indices in an application to reconstructed time series of electricity demand and wind and solar power generation across Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behaviour, practices and culture constitute a powerful human factor in the energy system; in particular the interactions between technologies, practices and norms lock individuals in to certain patterns of (often inefficient) energy use. Consequently, behaviour change has gained traction amongst policymakers as a key area of intervention given the impact energy-related behaviours have on climate change. Given the increasing emphasis within policy perspectives in the European Union, it is surprising that a gap in understanding of the success factors of behaviour change initiatives remains. This paper addresses this gap by identifying and characterising behaviour change initiatives across five European countries (the UK, Ireland, France, Italy, and Spain). The paper provides insights into the success factors and commonly encountered barriers to behaviour change initiatives. Initiatives are classified into 6 broad categories (community-based interventions; information and awareness based interventions; eco-districts; show-case events; energy switching; and smart-technology focused interventions). The results suggest that there are significant knowledge gaps between what is known to work to engage individuals in behavioural change and what is currently being applied in practice. An over-reliance on education and awareness-raising projects is evident, illustrating that such projects do not sufficiently aim for sustained behavioural changes. A dearth of projects incorporating fiscal measures, regulations or legislation to drive behaviour change reflects reluctance on behalf of decision-makers to engage widely with diverse approaches to foster lifestyle change. This paper contributes understandings of the different models and delivery tools employed to change energy-related behaviours; insights into the critical success factors that underpin best practice and the barriers to action; and a ‘what works in practice’ overview of the meaningful approaches to change behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the development of a spatial database for an annual energy consumption framework. As the database of the existing building stock is a weak point in most European cities but possible pathways to energy reduction in the building sector have to be found, this paper is of high relevance. Our framework uses a complex multi-source data set and a plethora of statistical methods to merge various large complex data sets and then apply a heat balance model in three sub-city areas in Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. The framework estimates the energy end-use at the single dwelling level on three aggregated scales: district, neighbourhood and communities. We propose a methodology for modelling energy in buildings in different ways depending on the required output scale, the cluster top-down model and the domestic energy model (DEM) bottom-up approaches. The cluster model is a generalization of similar building energy profiles into archetype medoid prototypes in districts and eventually the whole city, whereas the sub-city DEM is a representation of an individual building energy pro- file in neighbourhoods and communities. The framework can be used to test different energy measures (fabric and heating supply systems) for the same property type, and give insights into community energy analysis by aggregating individual building energy consumption. These insights will enable rational and considered responses to be formulated to the problems of integrating renewables into the generation portfolio, that are likely to be faced in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper inaugurates the study of the energy-sustainable economic growth for Europe. It is novel both because it calculates an Index for Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) index for European countries, but foremost because it compares the conventional energy-growth nexus with the newly appeared energy-sustainable growth nexus. Also, it goes further by suggesting ways to overcome the limitations pointed out to the use of the conventional GDP. The paper uses the road sector energy consumption, which is in accordance with the enormous discussion about the high energy intensity of the road transport sector and about the huge dependence from fossil sources of this sector. The dynamic Driscoll-Kraay estimator is also used, which allows decomposing the effects in the short- and long-run and is also robust in the presence of cross-sectional dependence. Results show that economic growth and sustainable economic welfare are not perfect substitute variables. In the long-run, the feedback hypothesis is verified only for sustainable growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In times of great transition of the European construction sector to energy efficient and nearly zero energy buildings (nZEB), a market observation containing qualitative and quantitative indications should help to fill out some of the current gaps concerning the EU 2020 carbon targets. Next to the economic challenges, there are equally important factors that hinder renovating the existing residential building stock and adding newly constructed high performance buildings. Under these circumstances this paper summarises the findings of a cross-comparative study of the societal and technical barriers of nZEB implementation in 7 Southern European countries. The study analyses the present situation and provides an overview on future prospects for nZEB in Southern Europe. The result presents an overview of challenges and provides recommendations based on available empirical evidence to further lower those barriers in the European construction sector. The paper finds that the most Southern European countries are poorly prepared for nZEB implementation and especially to the challenge/opportunity of retrofitting existing buildings. Creating a common approach to further develop nZEB targets, concepts and definitions in synergy with the climatic, societal and technical state of progress in Southern Europe is essential. The paper provides recommendations for actions to shift the identified gaps into opportunities for future development of climate adaptive high performance buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper explores the nexus between greenhouse gas, financial development, energy consumption, trade and urbanization in 34 upper middle income countries from Asia, Europe, Africa and America (South and North) by using panel data from 2001 to 2014. Vector error correction model explored different results for different regions such as the causality of greenhouse gas for Europe and America; financial development for Asia; trade openness for Asia, Europe and America; and urbanization for Africa and America. The causality of greenhouse gas emission was bi-directional with urbanization in America and trade in Europe. The bi-directional causality of trade was observed with financial development in Asia and urbanization in Africa. The generalized method of moment and fully modified ordinary least square explored a direct association of per capita greenhouse gas emission with financial development in Europe; energy consumption in all panels, and renewable energy in Africa and America. But, the relationship of per capita emission was reciprocal with financial development in Asia, Africa and America; renewable energy in Europe; trade in Europe, Africa and America; and urbanization in Asia, Europe and America. The relationship of variables changes from region to region and country to country. A country-based reciprocal effect on per capita greenhouse gas was observed for financial development, renewable energy, trade openness and urbanization for different countries. This paper provides an insight to policy makers to re-structure the financial system, energy usage pattern, trade and urbanization in accordance with the cleaning of environment at country and regional level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial furnace is one of the most energy intensive processes in Europe and it has been the focus of multiple researches to address improvements in the competitiveness energy, environmental and cost performance. One of the alternatives is the reduction of fossil fuel consumption, such as natural gas, promoting its substitution by an alternative fuel (Co-firing). This paper gathers a wide evaluation of the possibilities of substitution of natural gas. A revision of the types of syngas with potential for use has been carried out, as well as the evaluation of the physical properties of the mixtures from the combustion operation point of view. Three types of syngas from biomass gasification (BSG) and three from process off-gases (POG) have been considered. The feasibility study has taken into consideration parameters such as the lower heating value, the Woobe index, adiabatic flame temperature, air preheating temperature, total flue flow and laminar flame velocity. Regardless of the type of syngas, significant increase in volumetric fuel flow occurs in all cases. This behaviour is directly related to the LHV of the syngas, so that using syngases with lower LHV than the NG will always produce an increase of the fuel flow. A weigh matrix has been obtained in order to evaluate the viability of burners use with the syngas/natural gas mixture. It has been considered a burner commonly used in ceramic sector and it has been concluded that relevant modifications are necessary in order to consider the combustion of syngas/natural gas. The modifications have been evaluated using CFD simulations to stablish the proper design of the mix zone to ensure the mixture between the air, syngas and natural gas. This evaluation has been carried out following the fuel to air ratio. • Woobe Index is the best theoretical parameter to evaluate fuel replacement. • AFT, LHV and LFV should be also taken into account in the evaluation. • Deep burner modifications should be carried out for NG substitution by syngas. • Fuel to air ratio is a proper parameter to evaluate combustion performance. • Swirl plate is required to achieve a suitable mixture between NG-SG-combustible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global energy demand is lowering its growth, but it is still expected to increase by 30% between now and 2040. To decrease greenhouse gas emissions a shift to more sustainable renewable energy sources is fundamental. Among the renewable energy sources, biomasses already have the largest share in Europe and their future demand for biorefinery plants will increase at global level. This study provides a comprehensive and exportable categorization of the residual biomasses (RB) from different supply sectors. Thanks to the individual descriptive and quantitative parameters introduced in the paper, an estimate of the theoretical and techno-economic potential is presented for a well-industrialized, agricultural-oriented and environmentally advanced European Region. Results are presented as recoverable biogas or biomethane, considering also the seasonal availability. In a relatively small region like Emilia Romagna (Italy), 106 different types of residual biomasses belonging to 6 main groups have been characterized. Over half of the total residues come from the agro-industrial and food businesses (58) followed by the agricultural sector (33). The estimate reveals a theoretical potential of 3544 ± 291 Gg/year of total solids for thermochemical valorisation and 3460 ± 639 Gg/year of total solids suitable for biological treatment. In terms of unused potential, the quantities decrease respectively to 2120 ± 298 and 915 ± 167 Gg/year. The estimates indicate stable results over the years from 2014 to 2016. The seasonal availability shows two evident peaks from August to October, while a significant shortage is present from April to June for the residues suitable for thermochemical valorisation. The theoretical potential that can be obtained from the Region's residues corresponds to about 1.8–2.3 million TOE/year, corresponding to 13–17% of the total regional consumption. Unused residues contribute to 0.9–1.2 million TOE/year. Image 1 • A fully comprehensive and exportable categorization of the RBs is developed. • 106 residual biomasses have been identified and estimated in Emilia Romagna Region. • About 1.5 Mg/year/capita of total solids is produced in the Region. • The theoretical RB potential covers the 13–17% of the regional energy consumption. • The unused RB potential decrease to 7–9% of the annual regional energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy retrofitting of residential stock is not always straightforward where heritage protected housing is concerned. In southern Europe, many examples built under the Modern Movement codes are now obsolete in terms of energy efficiency. The aim of this paper is to assess the potential for improvement of comfort conditions and energy efficiency in Mediterranean heritage residential buildings, through the incorporation of passive strategies in keeping with preserving heritage values. Long-term monitoring and field tests in representative flats of the case-study building were carried out and, focusing on a single example, adaptive comfort equations were used to assess results. The passive strategies considered are the thermal isolation of the air cavities of walls, changing window frames, optimizing window glazing, and setting up regular mechanical ventilation rates for indoor air changes. Although simulation results generally predict a better energy performance after testing retrofit strategies, the potential decrease in energy demand is more noticeable than the potential improvement in comfort conditions. • The improvement of comfort and energy efficiency in a heritage building is assessed. • Long-term monitoring and field tests were carried out in representative flats. • Passive strategies in keeping with preserving heritage values were examined. • Adaptive comfort equations were used to assess results focusing on one flat. • Energy efficiency improvements are more noticeable than those of comfort conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The new solution for the façade integrated photovoltaic system, En-ActivETICS was proposed and described in detail, including technical recommendations. • The calibrated numerical model was used to determine hygrothermal performance and identify the most crucial issues of En-ActivETICS. • The positive effect of PCM and diffusion channels was revealed based on a numerical study using calibrated thermoelectrical and hygrothermal models. • The En-ActivETICS was investigated considering local climatic and economic conditions among 38 European countries. • The roadmap 2030 for the En-ActivETICS advancement was developed and presented. The main goal of the European building market transformation regards the reduction of CO 2 emissions and energy demand in the built environment towards net zero carbon buildings. This drives research and building practice to search for economically justified solutions that contribute to achieving these objectives. The work presented in this paper is concerned with the technological and economic context. The original solution of photovoltaic integration with the external thermal insulation composite system named the En-ActivETICS was developed, tested and analysed. The energy potential of the En-ActivETICS across Europe, considering south oriented façade is from 88.3 to 195.8 kWh/(m2⋅a), with the efficiency of solar energy conversion of around 13–14%. The problem of system overheating was solved by applying PCM mortar beside the PV panel, which allowed to keep the PV temperature below 70 °C. The risk of moisture load (from driven rain or water vapour condensation) was avoided by diffusion channels pressed in the mortar. Furthermore, the economic analysis of system implementation in Europe is also promising. Considering the availability of solar energy and electricity prices around Europe the payback time of the En-ActivETICS varies between 12 and 44 years for analysed countries. According to the presented roadmap for the En-ActivETICS advancement a payback period of <10 years is possible with a maximum cost of the system <275 EUR/m2 and electricity price >0.25 EUR/kWh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Long term field evaluation of forecast control of heating. • Easy integration with existing installations in buildings. • Widely applicable measure for energy savings around 10%. • Payback time below one heating season. The priority for reaching carbon neutral buildings by 2050 is to first increase energy efficiency in existing buildings by use of easily and widely applicable measures that are verified based on long-term field research. One such solution is a forecast control of heating systems, which can be quickly and easily integrated to existing weather based controls. However, there are still no long-term field evaluation and detailed analyses of the main features of such a system, which would provide a clear picture about the system's energetical and economical features and thus increase their wide application in existing buildings. This paper provides the data from a long term field evaluation of an innovative forecast control of heating systems (forHEAT), which can be easily installed (in less than 2 h) and integrated with existing installations in millions of existing buildings in Europe and throughout the world. The energy consumption for heating was evaluated in seven residential buildings and three public office buildings before and after the installation and use of the forecast control. The resulting energy savings averaged 13.4% in the residential and 10.7% in the public buildings located in continental European climate, with very cold winters. The payback time averaged a 0.6 heating season and in most case studies does not exceed a single heating season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Lack of a clear path in the fight against energy poverty across the European union. • Energy poverty related to the residential sector allows new solutions to be developed. • Current energy poverty indicators provide an incomplete analysis of vulnerability. Abstract The term energy poverty (EP), mostly used to capture problems related to an inadequate access to energy suppliers in developing countries, and that of fuel poverty (FP), commonly employed when households suffer from insufficient monetary resources to pay for their basic energy needs, are used interchangeably by many researchers. Energy poverty and/or fuel poverty are considered to be an indication of domestic energy deprivation or energy vulnerability and remain a global problem that has been accentuated in Europe due to the economic crisis. This work has made a comprehensive review of the current concepts and indicators of FP, and of current initiatives to tackle this issue, across Europe, thereby raising the discussion of how energy vulnerability factors fit FP situations: available infrastructure, energy efficiency, social and economic poverty, and wellbeing and health. In this context, the first weak spot of the FP indicators and initiatives analyzed is that most factors that influence the everyday activities of a household are not considered (comfort, health, and wellbeing), resulting in an incomplete analysis if these are used in an isolated way. This paper provides a multiple-indicator approach to understand an FP situation beyond its traditional definition, thereby establishing a starting point for the reflection of vulnerability in policy decisions and methodological implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As of July 2017, the emissions type-approval of light-duty vehicles in Europe is based on the Worldwide Harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP), introduced to replace the old and outdated New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) test procedure. Since some elements of the European Legislation are still based on the NEDC (2020 CO 2 emission targets, vehicle labelling, national vehicle taxation policies, etc.) in order to allow sufficient lead time to vehicle manufacturers and national authorities to adapt to the new procedure, a simulation-based approach was chosen to calculate CO 2 emissions and fuel consumption according to the NEDC regime in the period 2017–2020. To achieve this objective without significantly increasing the cost and duration of the certification procedure, existing regulation foresees that vehicles are tested over the WLTP for CO 2 emissions, the test results are used as input in a simulation model that then calculates the corresponding CO 2 according to the NEDC test protocol. A dedicated vehicle simulation model (CO 2 MPAS) was developed for the purpose and is currently used for the type-approval of new vehicles in Europe. The development specifications of CO 2 MPAS were challenging, as it had to be highly accurate, exhibit fast operation, and function with a limited number of input data. This paper presents the development principles and process followed, details of the physical models employed in CO 2 MPAS, and provides information regarding its accuracy, validity and in use operation. CO 2 MPAS achieves low errors in the prediction of the NEDC cycle that in the controlled sample used for its development are of the order of 1% with a standard deviation of 3%, while the respective in-use numbers are of the order of 1.5% and 5%. In parallel, random sampling and testing of a 10% of the type-approved vehicles also occurs in order to guarantee the quality of the CO 2 MPAS results and the validity of the process. It is concluded that CO 2 MPAS can be used to accurately estimate emissions of conventional vehicles within a ±4% accuracy range, even when limited input data are available. In addition, the in-use data analyzed suggest that the use of the tool enables the certification of about 2/3 of the new vehicle models without the need of additional experimental tests. This is an important achievement as it reduces the costs and time necessary to certify light-duty vehicle CO 2 emissions during the transitional period. Finally, it can be concluded that the use of CO 2 MPAS does not affect the declared CO 2 emissions of vehicles over NEDC conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Turkey as in Europe, the share of natural gas (NG) in the generation of electricity has shown a dramatic increase since the 1990s. Although Turkey faced two economic crises in the last decade, its total electricity generation has increased by 60%. NG consumption was 0.43 bcm in 1987 and reached 40 bcm by 2014. A big fraction of total electricity generation (TEG) is produced from NG. While the NG-based electricity generation was 0.2% in 1985, its share increased rapidly and it has reached to 48% of the TEG in 2014 and share of NG in total thermal power is about 60%. The goal of this paper is to review the historical development of the electricity and NG sectors, and to forecast and review the process of electricity generation with NG. Additionally, this paper compare the use of NG in electricity generation in Turkey and World, and analyze the supply–demand projections and future prospects in the field of energy. Results obtained from the present study show that a diversity of energy resources has not been achieved and as it is today in meeting the increasing energy demand, NG will continue to be a priority in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By 2020 Europe has to increase its energy efficiency and share of renewables in 20%. However, even accomplishing these challenging objectives Europe will be effectively wasting energy as we demonstrate in this paper. In our way towards a fully renewable scenario, we need at least to stop wasting energy in order to guarantee the energy supply needed for growth and comfort. We waste energy when we employ more primary energy than the final energy we ultimately use and this excess cannot be reutilized. In this paper we propose the WE (wasted energy) as a novel metric to measure the performance of energy systems and set up appropriate targets. The WE incorporates information about energy efficiency and renewable sources. Unlike European legislation, the WE considers them in an integrated way. This approach will help Member States to exploit their intrinsic capabilities and design their optimum strategy to reach their objectives. Using the information in Eurostat, we calculate the WE of Member States in EU-28 and their evolution. We also analyze illustrative examples to highlight strategies to reduce the WE, study the connection between economic development and WE, and provide a tool to diagnose the potential of improvement of an energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When new energy efficient products are struggling with their commercialisation and diffusion into widespread applications you would typically expect policy-makers and green lead-users to guide the way. This paper examines the case of the hot water circulator pump industry in Europe, where parts of the industry envisioned and worked for a voluntary energy label, bringing technological innovation, new business and energy savings of approx. 85% for each new circulator pump. The case study explores the complexities of innovation processes where technology, market, actors and policy co-evolve over time to transform an existing socio-technical regime. The paper highlights the importance of policies to reduce barriers towards innovation and energy efficiency and shows that it is not always policy-makers that establish the crucial policies that change the innovation dynamics for the benefit of the environment and the industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition from current linear economy toward a circular economy (CE) needs the adoption and diffusion of circular economy innovation (CEI). However, the rate and direction of CEI influenced by policy instruments are still not well understood. This paper explores the roles of demand-pull and technology-push policy instruments in shaping CEI in Europe. The different impacts on the adoption across different sectors and the specific effects on each circularity innovation pattern are also examined. The findings indicate that both command-and-control regulation and technology-push instruments are significant in stimulating Small Medium Enterprises' (SMEs') adoption of CEI. While the environmental tax hinders SMEs' implementation of CEI in the whole economic activity sectors, it is a significant driver of CEI for SMEs in the manufacturing sector. The technology-push instrument strongly encourages SMEs to invest in re-planning and re-designing activities to minimize the usage or maximize the re-usage of water, energy, and materials. Environmental tax highly determines SMEs' adoption of CEI related to improving energy efficiency. In contrast, the command-and-control regulation significantly increases SMEs' likelihood to undertake innovation activity in minimizing waste by recycling or reusing the waste. Our study elucidates the potential interactions between policy instruments and CEI, paving the way toward the desirable CE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • This paper focuses on rapid and accurate energy-economic performance prediction. • A novel Energy-Flow based Ensemble Calibration model was proposed. • Few studies addressed deep energy retrofit performance in single-family houses. • The coupling effects in deep energy retrofit combinations were analysed. • Real energy consumption of the retrofitted case study was used for validation. In Europe, 68% of residential building stocks are single-family houses, of which roughly 54% are constructed before the 1970 s with poor energy efficiency. However, few studies have addressed the issue of 'Rapid and accurate energy-economic performance prediction of deep energy retrofit in single-family houses' over the past decades. Recently, this issue has been discussed in limited research via Black- or White-box based building energy models to predict post-retrofit energy-economic performance. Applying the Black-box models, low accuracy occurs due to inadequate data, neglect of coupling effects in deep energy retrofit combinations and lack of complex heat transfer phenomena in single-family houses. Conversely, the White-box models with time-consuming and numerous dynamic simulations are very hard to be implemented at a building cluster or urban scale. This paper proposes a novel Energy-Flow based Ensemble Calibration model to tackle this issue, with a maximum discrepancy of 6% compared to other building performance simulation results and 0.72 s computing time on a single combination. This model consists of three layers 1) input neurons, 2) complex heat and electrical transfer models, and 3) output neurons. By replacing the layer of hidden neurons with complex heat and electrical transfer models in conventional Black-box models, the coupling effects in deep energy retrofit combinations and complex heat transfer phenomena are thoroughly considered in this research. Besides, the computational efforts are substantially reduced with only a few building performance simulations required for baseline building and identified individual retrofit measures. A semi-detached 1960 s Italian single-family house is selected as a case study to validate the calculation results from this model against real energy consumption of baseline and post-retrofit scenario, with a discrepancy of −0.66% and 1.03%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, particular solar energy, can be connected to Europe to provide the Northern neighbouring countries with electricity. To achieve this long term objective, it is necessary to understand the local domestic consumption of electricity in the MENA region as the main consumer of energy. The understanding of current and future trends could help to provide a complete picture of the energy situation in MENA region and the feasibility of exporting energy to Europe. For this reason, this paper investigates the domestic energy use and occupants’ energy behaviour in Libya. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of domestic energy consumption and householders’ awareness, attitudes and behaviour on the overall energy consumption in Libya and how this could affect the peak demand, capacity, future trends and government energy budget. The paper also investigates the sustainability aspect of consumer products and the awareness and attitude of consumers towards consumption and demand. A comprehensive survey has been conducted to evaluate several aspects of domestic energy demand and characteristics in Libya. The findings have indicated that there is a significant increase in energy demands in the household sector in Libya and it is significant to have a clear strategy to reduce carbon emission and energy use by improving occupants’ behaviour as well as utilising other sustainable measures. Minor adjustment in householders’ energy consumption behaviour and the technology used to generate energy could provide significant financial savings and contribute significantly to the reduction in carbon emission and energy consumption. This will allow significant benefit to the local economy and the energy sector in Libya but at the same time could provide sustainable energy resources for Europe on the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing penetration of renewable energy sources in Europe requires market mechanisms which allow an efficient balancing of these sources. This paper analyzes the participation of renewable generators in the Spanish intraday market. First, the organization of the intraday market and the short-term market mechanisms influencing intraday trading are described. After that, day-ahead and intraday market prices, as well as intraday trading volumes, are used to study the behavior of market agents in the Spanish intraday market. Regarding renewable generators, the influence of support schemes on the behavior of these agents in the intraday market is also analyzed. This paper shows that the Spanish intraday market has effectively contributed to renewable generation balancing. Despite this, market distortions have incentivized some renewable generators to arbitrate between the day-ahead and intraday markets, giving rise to higher system costs. Based on the presented analysis, it is argued that these distortions need to be removed from short-term markets to incentivize market parties, especially intermittent generators, to reduce forecast errors over time, improving economic efficiency and avoiding the use of costly balancing actions performed by the System Operator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarises the results of a study to identify and quantify the potential impact of measures and policies to reduce the energy consumption of air conditioning in European countries over a 10-year period. The market penetration of air conditioning in Europe has increased steadily over several decades. On a “business as usual” basis, its energy consumption would increase by over 50% by 2020. Measures to restrict this increase are therefore important, but the savings potential straddles several overlapping areas which are subject to different constraints including those imposed by the replacement rates of systems and products, and the refurbishment rates of existing buildings. This work reported in this paper is based on the use of information from a variety of sources in a highly disaggregated model to assess the “realisable” savings over a 10-year period, taking into account relevant constraints. The paper summarises results at a European level, focussing on those cases that generate the greatest realisable savings. Savings are possible in three areas: improved equipment and system efficiency, reduced cooling loads, and more effective operation. The cases that offer the largest savings provide the basis for recommendations for policy measures, often using existing policy instruments. In addition, areas where further work is needed are identified. More detailed results and information about the study and additional recommendations can be found at http://www.bre.co.uk/searchresults.jsp?category=5&q=energy+management [1] . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to measure the rebound effect (RE) or take back effect of jet fuel prices for air transport by using the unbalanced panel data of the airlines of the Association of European Airlines (AEA) from 1986 to 2013. Three equations are set and modelled simultaneously: (1) traffic demand, (2) aircraft, and (3) fuel efficiency. We consider endogenous changes in fuel efficiency, and the impact of environmental policy such as the EU ETS is also included. Our results show the smaller short run RE, but much larger RE in a long run of air transport. The short-run RE for 1986–1999 is 2.9% and 2.1% for 2000–2013, while the long-run RE is 49% for 1986–1999 and 19% for 2000–2013, respectively. It indicates the effectiveness of the regulation or economic instrument to reduce emissions (fuel consumption) in the air transport market by improving fuel efficiency due to the large RE compared to other sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than 130 million microwaves are affected by European Union (EU) legislation which is aimed at reducing the consumption of electricity in the standby mode (‘Standby Regulation’) and at more sustainable management of end-of-life electrical and electronic waste (‘WEEE Directive’). While legislation focuses on these two life cycle stages, there is little information on the environmental impacts of the entire life cycle of microwaves. To address this gap, this paper presents a comprehensive life cycle assessment of microwaves and assesses the environmental implications of the Standby Regulation and the WEEE Directive at the EU level. The impacts are first considered at the level of individual appliances and then at the EU level, with the aim of evaluating the potential environmental implications of the full implementation of the above two EU regulations by 2020. The effects of the electricity decarbonisation and the expected increase in the number of microwaves in use have also been considered. The results suggest that implementation of the EU regulation by 2020 will reduce the environmental impacts considered by 4%–9% compared to the current situation. The majority of these reductions is due to the Standby Regulation, with the contribution of the WEEE Directive being small (~ 0.3%). However, the expected decarbonisation of electricity will result in much higher reductions (6%–24%) for most impact categories. The results also show that the materials used to manufacture the microwaves, the manufacturing process and end-of-life disposal are environmental hot-spots for several impacts, including depletion of abiotic elements. Therefore, efforts to reduce the environmental impacts of a future electricity mix should be combined with the development of specific eco-design regulations for microwaves that stipulate optimisation of resource consumption. Possible future trends, such as shorter lifetimes and limited availability of some resources, make the development of such product regulations more critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes an overarching review of national municipal waste management systems and waste-to-energy as an important part of it in the context of circular economy in the selected countries in Europe. The growth of population and rising standards of living means that the consumption of goods and energy is increasing. On the one hand, consumption leads to an increase in the generation of waste. On the other hand, the correlation between increased wealth and increased energy consumption is very strong as well. Given that the average heating value of municipal solid waste (MSW) is approximately 10 MJ/kg, it seems logical to use waste as a source of energy. Traditionally, waste-to-energy (WtE) has been associated with incineration. Yet, the term is much broader, embracing various waste treatment processes generating energy (for instance, in the form of electricity and/or heat or producing a waste-derived fuel). Turning waste into energy can be one key to a circular economy enabling the value of products, materials, and resources to be maintained on the market for as long as possible, minimising waste and resource use. As the circular economy is at the top of the EU agenda, all Member States of the EU (including the EEA countries) should move away from the old-fashioned disposal of waste to a more intelligent waste treatment encompassing the circular economy approach in their waste policies. Therefore, the article examines how these EU policies are implemented in practice. Given that WtE traditionally is attached to the MSW management and organisation, the focus of this article is twofold. Firstly, it aims to identify the different practices of municipal waste management employed in selected countries and their approaches in embracing the circular economy and, secondly, the extent to which WtE technologies play any role in this context. The following countries, Estonia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, and the UK were chosen to depict a broad European context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares the electricity, heating, and cooling sectors at national level for various European countries. Annual energy demands are compared for all 28 EU countries, while peak hourly demands are compared for four countries that vary significantly. The results indicate that the heat demand is currently the largest of the three demand types considered in terms of both annual and peak demands: it is the largest annual demand in 25 of the 28 EU countries, and it represents the largest peak demand in all four countries analysed. Electricity, heating, and cooling demands are all likely to change significantly in the future with increasing electrification, energy efficiency (e.g. building insulation), and improved comfort (especially for cooling). Some extreme scenarios are presented here to quantify the potential impact of these changes on the electricity sector, with results revealing that the demand for electricity could double compared to today, depending on how these changes occur. Considering the scale of additional electricity required to electrify future heating and cooling demands, heat pumps should be prioritised over electric heating and other alternatives, such as district heating and cooling, will likely be required to minimise the strain on the electricity grid in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we investigate the impacts of the EU ETS on airlines' pollution abatement costs based on the empirical data of 12 European airlines. We propose a new Network Environmental Production Function to discuss the change of pollution abatement costs between the situations under EU ETS and without EU ETS. We also discuss the impacts of “Take off the European referendum” on UK airlines. The main findings are: 1. Ryanair has the largest pollution abatement costs while those of Lufthansa and Norwegian are zero. 2. The “Take off the European referendum” has no direct impacts on the pollution abatement costs of UK-based carriers. 3. The EU ETS has little influence on the pollution abatement costs of most of the airlines, and a broader package of measures should be necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to advance a model able to explain the synchronization tendency in energy consumption, under the impact of international technology transfers. The key argument is related to the differences in energy consumption efficiency of local and foreign technologies. One direct testable consequence of the model is that there might be a certain correlation between the energy consumption between countries and/or economic areas where a free movement of capital goods and technologies takes place. Hence, it is further tested, in the framework of a multivariate spectrum analysis, the case of energy consumption synchronization between Europe and, respectively, United States and Japan for a time span between 1981 and 2011 based on the data provided by U.S. Energy Information Administration. There are evidences of a leading behavior of energy consumption in United States and Japan in respect to Europe as well as of short-run phase delays of 2 up to 5 months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes insights on differences in observed rates of substitution for fossil fuels across countries as measured by changes in the energy mix. If some countries are relatively slower in substituting for fossil fuels, climate change will be addressed less successfully. This paper specifically investigates the role of industrialisation and state-related institutions in the speed of energy substitution in 19 European countries from years 2011–2018 using panel data econometric methods, and has three main results. This paper finds evidence that (1) higher industrialisation levels in the economy increase the speed of energy substitution; (2) that changes in industrialisation levels, not the levels themselves, decrease the speed of energy substitution, but state-related institutions in support of green energy policy weaken this effect; and that (3) higher degrees of state control of the electricity sector slows down energy substitution, but state-related institutions in support of green energy policy likewise weaken this effect. These findings imply that higher industrialisation levels require more energy in absolute terms, implying greater energy portfolio diversification in order to satisfy such energy demand, and that a faster energy substitution can result from a more liberalised electricity sector. • A study on 19 European countries from years 2011–2018 using panel data. • Changes in industrialisation levels decelerates energy substitution. • More state control of the electricity sector decelerates energy substitution. • State-related institutions supporting green energy policies weaken these effects. • Higher industrialisation levels themselves however accelerate energy substitution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest biomass is one of the few non-fossil and non-weather-dependent energy sources available in the Nordic countries. The future role of forest-based bioenergy is, however, unclear as biomass is a limited resource and has many alternative applications. This study analyses how fossil emissions and land-use is affected by forest bioenergy in the North-European heat and power sector, using an energy system model with endogenous capacity investments. The novelty of this paper lies in the detailed description of the substitution factors for different bioenergy levels toward a fully decarbonised energy system. The main results show that forest biomass remains important for heat production in the Nordic countries towards 2050 in a cost-optimal scenario. According to our model results, less use of forest biomass for heating will increase the use of fossil fuel, wind power, and power-to-heat in 2030, while in 2050 also solar PV will be used as a substitute for forest biomass. Implying that less use of forest biomass will increase the land use from wind and solar PV installation and increase and prolong the fossil carbon emission in the Nordic countries. • 1 TWh biomass reduces the emission with 0.10 mill ton of CO 2 in 2030 in North Europe. • The land-use substitution factor in North Europe is 18–47 km2/TWh biomass in 2050. • Forest biomass remains important for heat production towards 2050. • Excluding forest biomass from the energy sector increases emissions and land use. • Less use of biomass implies more use of land for wind installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper conducts data envelopment analysis (DEA) for the purpose of calculating inefficiencies in the European countries' growth using as main inputs the variables typically used in the growth-energy literature nexus such as energy consumption, carbon emissions, employment and capital but also with a particular focus on renewable energy sources (RES) consumption. Since we have a panel data set, we also apply the Malmquist method to calculate total factor productivity and an analysis of peers. Mean overall efficiency has been calculated to be equal to 0.892, while mean pure technical efficiency is 0.569 and scale efficiency 1.798. Countries with remarkable renewable energy performance have medium to low efficiency, while renewable energy laggards are among the most technically efficient countries in Europe. Results from this paper are useful for monitoring and benchmarking purposes with respect to their 2020 renewable energy obligations stemming from 2009/28/ED Directive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Modelling energy savings of renovations in the Dutch non-profit housing stock. • Assessment of 1.6 million dwellings, 21 building features and 3 empirical models. • Empirical models outperform the theoretical building energy model. • Shortcomings exist when predicting effects of specific energy-saving interventions. In Europe, the energy performance of dwellings is measured using theoretical building energy models based on the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), which estimates the energy consumption of dwellings. However, literature shows large performance gaps between the theoretically predicted energy consumption and the actual energy consumption of dwellings. The goal of this paper is to investigate the extent to which empirical models provide more accurate estimations of actual energy consumption when compared to a theoretical building energy model, in order to estimate average actual energy savings of renovations. We used the Dutch non-profit housing stock to demonstrate the results. We examined three empirical models to predict the actual energy consumption of dwellings: a linear regression model, a non-linear regression model, and a machine learning model (GBM). This paper shows that these three models alleviate the performance gap by giving a good prediction of actual energy consumption on sectoral cross-sections. However, these models still have shortcomings when predicting the effects of specific renovation interventions, for example newly introduced heat pumps. The non-linear and machine learning model (GBM) outperform the theoretical model in terms of estimating energy savings through renovation interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of cities and their commitment to meet the European targets on energy and climate has steadily increased in the latest years as testified by the large number of ambitious initiatives undertaken by European cities to face multiple challenges towards sustainability. Many projects and initiatives have arisen all around Europe to support cities in the achievement of the Europe 2020 targets of smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. RE-SEEties “Towards resource-efficient urban communities in SEE” is one of the projects funded under the South East Europe program aimed to enhance the policy-making and strategic planning competences of municipalities in the field of energy efficiency, renewable energy sources and waste valorization. This paper focuses on the methods developed and the main results achieved in the framework of RE-SEEties. The main focus is on the eight partner cities (The Local Government of Budapest District 18 – Hungary/HU, Municipality of Aigaleo – Greece/EL, Municipality of Potenza – Italy/IT, City of Nitra – Slovakia/SK, City of Skopje – Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia/FYROM, City of Miercurea Ciuc – Romania/RO, Municipality of Ptuj – Slovenia/SI, City of Ivanić-Grad – Croatia/HR) and how they were assisted by professional institutions in translating their commitments towards resource efficiency into Local Strategies and Action Plans. A critical comparison of these final results points out differences and similarities in the state-of-the-art of cities across South East Europe as well as a the level of ambition and difficulties faced to turn into resource efficient urban communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Energy Efficiency Directive requests the application of high quality and cost effective energy audits across Europe. The potential of up to 20% of energy savings shall be realized to follow the strategy of smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth. A number of barriers must be tackled to implement the Directive, especially among small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). A large number of cost effective energy efficiency measures remains unimplemented because of financial reasons, a lack of information, and limited in-house skills. Information measures, audits, capacity buildings are suggested as potentially effective measures to support implementation of energy efficiency measures. Within the work described in this paper, an auditing approach was developed, focusing on modelling the energy consumption of an SME. The model of the energy consumption is built using simple MS Excel tools, dividing the process into unit operations and attributing annual consumption to these units, from measurements or by calculation. Consumption is linked to drivers of consumption and corresponding losses, thus developing an understanding of the origin of energy consumption, priorities, and the potential for reduction. The approach simultaneously addresses the needs for the identification of measures, capacity building, information and awareness raising. The auditing approach was tested with 280 companies in Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Italy, Romania, Slovakia and Spain. A wide range of energy efficiency measures was identified and implemented, partly consisting of no-cost options, but partly also innovative technical solutions. Over EUR 10 million investments with a simple payback time of less than three years were triggered. 6500 toe per year of primary energy savings were realized, as well as greenhouse gas emission reductions of 13,500 tonnes per year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cement industry is one of the most important industries worldwide and the world cement production is projected to grow by 0.8–1.2% per year, reaching between 3700 and 4400 megatonnes in 2050. This industry is facing important challenges in the context of restrained use of raw materials and need of optimization of energy consumption. The aim of this paper is to assess environmental impacts of using wastes as a partial replacement of fossil fuels in a representative cement plant in Southern Europe. Refuse derived fuel and scrap tires were employed as alternative fuels. The environmental profile of the cement manufacturing was presented through a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment approach based on primary data collected in the plant. The functional unit was 1 tonne of ordinary Portland cement and the impact assessment was based on indicators that comply with the ISO 14040. The impact categories studied were abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation and global warming. The processes that most contributed to these impact categories were the atmospheric emissions in the kiln, the consumption of fossil fuels, and the consumption of electricity in the mills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: With the rising prices of the retail electricity and the decreasing cost of the PV technology, grid parity with commercial electricity will soon become a reality in Europe. This fact, together with less attractive PV feed-in-tariffs in the near future and incentives to promote self-consumption suggest, that new operation modes for the PV Distributed Generation should be explored; differently from the traditional approach which is only based on maximizing the exported electricity to the grid. The smart metering is experiencing a growth in Europe and the United States but the possibilities of its use are still uncertain, in our system we propose their use to manage the storage and to allow the user to know their electrical power and energy balances. The ADSM has many benefits studied previously but also it has important challenges, in this paper we can observe and ADSM implementation example where we propose a solution to these challenges. In this paper we study the effects of the Active Demand-Side Management (ADSM) and storage systems in the amount of consumed local electrical energy. It has been developed on a prototype of a self-sufficient solar house called “MagicBox” equipped with grid connection, PV generation, lead–acid batteries, controllable appliances and smart metering. We carried out simulations for long-time experiments (yearly studies) and real measures for short and mid-time experiments (daily and weekly studies). Results show the relationship between the electricity flows and the storage capacity, which is not linear and becomes an important design criterion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Buildings account for almost half of energy consumptions in European countries and energy demand in building continues to grow worldwide. Fossil fuels are finite reserves. Impacts of peak oil will be perceived soon or later in the next decades. The scale of the challenge in reducing fossil fuel dependency in the built environment is vast and will require a dramatic increase in skills and awareness amongst the construction professions. Building refurbishment towards zero carbon is established itself as one critical aspect to decouple from fossil fuels and tackle with future energy crisis. However, it is a very complex phenomenon cuts across disciplines. This paper categorises a range of technologies for building refurbishment in a sequential manner. A hierarchical process with embedded techniques (insulations, energy efficient equipment and micro-generation) is presented in this paper as a pathway towards zero-carbon building refurbishment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Building energy use accounts for almost 50% of the total CO2 emissions in the UK. Most of the research has focused on reducing the operational impact of buildings, however in recent years many studies have indicated the significance of embodied energy in different building types. This paper primarily focuses on illustrating the relative importance of operational and embodied energy in a flexible use light distribution warehouse. The building is chosen for the study as it is relatively easy to model and represents many distribution centres and industrial warehouses in Europe. A carbon footprinting study was carried out by conducting an inventory of the major installed materials with potentially significant carbon impact and material substitutions covering the building structure. Ecotect computer simulation program was used to determine the energy consumption for the 25 years design life of the building. This paper evaluates alternative design strategies for the envelope of the building and their effects on the whole life emissions by investigating both embodied and operational implications of changing the envelope characteristics. The results provide an insight to quantify the total amount of CO2 emissions saved through design optimisation by modeling embodied and operational energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Restrictions on CO2 emissions, the nuclear phase-out announced by some member states, high emissions from coal-fired power plants, and barriers to rapid development of renewable generation are factors that make the European Union (EU) highly dependent on natural gas. With three non-EU countries (Russia, Algeria and Norway) currently supplying more than half the gas consumed within the EU and with projections pointing out that by 2030 internal sources will only be able to meet 25% of demand, the EU desperately looks for means to secure new sources of gas supply. In this context, the Nabucco pipeline is planned to deliver gas from Caspian and Middle East regions to the EU market. It runs across Turkey and then through Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary before connecting with a major gas hub in Austria. On paper, Nabucco project makes perfect sense, offering a new export route to the EU markets for Caspian gas producers (Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan) as well as Iran and, in time, Iraq. The project is backed by the EU and strongly supported by the United States. Perhaps most importantly, Nabucco would completely bypass Russia. This paper addresses issues surrounding Nabucco project and their implications for the European gas security. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the last few years the solar-powered air-conditioning systems have been in intensive development and more often are considered as the viable application for the thermal solar systems in the regions of southern Europe. This is mainly due to the increasing higher electrical consumption in many countries (especially in Spain) which is moving from the winter to summer months due to expanding usage of cooling systems in this period of the year. In this paper we will analyze the behaviour of the solar-assisted air-conditioning system installed in the CIESOL building. This system consists mainly of flat-plate solar collectors and the simple effect LiBr–H2O absorption chiller. Different operation modes were analyzed. Coefficient of performance (COP) at various generator, absorber, condenser and evaporator temperatures is investigated and experimental results show that in practice it is easy to obtain values of about 0.6. The main goal of this paper is to describe the characteristics of the developing building and the solar-assisted air-conditioning system. Another useful purpose is to find the optimum conditions and operation parameters for the solar system through analyzing various systems'' operation strategies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: During the project Clean Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE), which ended in May 2006, 27 fuel cell buses were operated in nine European cities. In this paper key performance parameters from the operation of the fuel cell buses in the project are reported, the energy system of the bus is analysed and drive cycle tests in five cities are presented and analysed. The focus of the paper is on fuel consumption and optimisation potential but experiences of, and recommendations for, evaluation in large demonstration projects are also presented. The results show that although the total fuel cell system efficiency was found to be high (36–41%), the fuel consumption was higher for the fuel cell buses than for diesel buses. Since the CUTE buses were a pre-commercial generation of fuel cell buses, with standard auxiliaries and extensive reliability measures, large fuel consumption reduction is possible. Suggestions on how to increase the efficiency is presented in this paper. Minimising the reliability measures would decrease fuel consumption by about 20% and lowering the weight by 2 tonnes would decrease fuel consumption by another 10%. Hybridisation in combination with using electrical auxiliaries could save an additional 5–10% or more. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Discrepancies between real-world use of vehicles and certification cycles are a known issue. This paper presents an analysis of vehicle fuel consumption and pollutant emissions of the European certification cycle (NEDC) and the proposed worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure (WLTP) Class 3 cycle using data collected on-road. Sixteen light duty vehicles equipped with different propulsion technologies (spark-ignition engine, compression-ignition engine, parallel hybrid and full hybrid) were monitored using a portable emission measurement system under real-world driving conditions. The on-road data obtained, combined with the Vehicle Specific Power (VSP) methodology, was used to recreate the dynamic conditions of the NEDC and WLTP Class 3 cycle. Individual vehicle certification values of fuel consumption, CO 2 , HC and NO x emissions were compared with test cycle estimates based on road measurements. The fuel consumption calculated from on-road data is, on average, 23.9% and 16.3% higher than certification values for the recreated NEDC and WLTP Class 3 cycle, respectively. Estimated HC emissions are lower in gasoline and hybrid vehicles than certification values. Diesel vehicles present higher estimated NO x emissions compared to current certification values (322% and 326% higher for NO x and 244% and 247% higher for HC + NO x for NEDC and WLTP Class 3 cycle, respectively). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term energy poverty is used to describe a situation of a household not able to satisfy socially and materially the required levels of its energy services. Energy and fuel poverty is an increasing problem in the European Union. Although the specific conditions vary from country to country the drivers defining fuel and energy poverty are similar in all Europe. This paper aims to present the state of the art regarding the energy demand and indoor environmental quality of low income households in Europe. The characteristics of this specific population group are presented including details on the specific energy consumption, the indoor comfort and finally the impact of the specific living conditions on the occupants' health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme weather conditions in urban areas have a serious impact on the quality of life, energy consumption and health of urban citizens. In addition energy poverty has a serious impact on the quality of life of low income households. The aim of the present paper is review the actual housing status of low income population in Europe and discuss issues related to the impact of urban overheating and extreme weather phenomena on the specific energy consumption, indoor environmental conditions and health. Finally advanced low cost mitigation and adaptation technologies developed during the last years that offer a serious potential for energy and environmental improvements which can contribute to improve the quality of life of low income population are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A very large percentage of the European residential building stock is ageing and does not comply with current energy regulations. The need to complete short-term energy upgrading on these buildings in order to improve performance and meet current regulations poses a considerable challenge. Consistent energy methodologies are needed for mass application of suitable technologies in sensitive points such as the façade, saving time by guiding designers on use of preferred climatic design strategies for each situation and with economic feasibility. The paper presents a methodology with integrative approach between energy and economic aspects, using an inference system to overcome uncertain or unknown information found at the start of the project. Components used in the analysis are studied from a programmatic point of view (input, decision process and output). The methodology is suitable for early stages of the design process and its products enable continuation into more advanced ones. The methodology can form the basis for a software program using either its own databases or integrated energy simulation engines. This work is based on research for a European project concerning energy retrofit of residential building facades, but can be extended to other zones or end-uses having similar approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]