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Introduction Mentholated cigarettes are at least as dangerous to an individual's health as non-mentholated varieties. The addition of menthol to cigarettes reduces perceived harshness of smoke, which can facilitate initiation. Here, we examine correlates of menthol use, national trends in smoking menthol and non-menthol cigarettes, and brand preferences over time. Methods We estimated menthol cigarette use during 2004-2010 using annual data on persons ≥12 years old from the National Surveys on Drug Use and Health. We adjusted self-reported menthol status for selected brands that were either exclusively menthol or nonmenthol, based on sales data. Data were weighted to provide national estimates. Results Among cigarette smokers, menthol cigarette use was more common among 12-17 year olds (56.7%) and 18-25 year olds (45.0%) than among older persons (range 30.5% to 34.7%). In a multivariable analysis, menthol use was associated with being younger, female and of non-Caucasian race/ethnicity. Among all adolescents, the percentage who smoked non-menthol cigarettes decreased from 2004-2010, while menthol smoking rates remained constant; among all young adults, the percentage who smoked non-menthol cigarettes also declined, while menthol smoking rates increased. The use of Camel menthol and Marlboro menthol increased among adolescent and young adult smokers, particularly non-Hispanic Caucasians, during the study period. Conclusions Young people are heavy consumers of mentholated cigarettes. Progress in reducing youth smoking has likely been attenuated by the sale and marketing of mentholated cigarettes, including emerging varieties of established youth brands. This study should inform the Food and Drug Administration regarding the potential public health impact of a menthol ban. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Programme evaluations conducted alongside randomised controlled trials (RCTs) have potential to enhance understanding of trial outcomes. This paper describes a multi-level programme evaluation to be conducted alongside an RCT of a falls prevention programme (RESPOND). Objectives (1) To conduct a process evaluation in order to identify the degree of implementation fidelity and associated barriers and facilitators. (2) To evaluate the primary intended impact of the programme: participation in fall prevention strategies and the factors influencing participation. (3) To identify the factors influencing RESPOND RCT outcomes: falls, fall injuries and emergency department (ED) re-presentations. Methods/design 528 community-dwelling adults aged 60-90 years presenting to two EDs with a fall will be recruited and randomly assigned to the intervention or standard care group. All RESPOND participants and RESPOND clinicians will be included in the evaluation. A mixed methods design will be used and a programme logic model will frame the evaluation. Data will be sourced from interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, clinician case notes, recruitment records, participant-completed calendars, hospital administrative datasets and audio-recordings of intervention contacts. Quantitative data will be analysed via descriptive and inferential statistics and qualitative data will be interpreted using thematic analysis. Discussion The RESPOND programme evaluation will provide information about contextual and influencing factors related to the RESPOND RCT outcomes. The results will assist researchers, clinicians and policy makers regarding decisions about future falls prevention interventions. Insights gained may be applicable to a range of chronic conditions where similar preventive intervention approaches are indicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the methods of sampling design and data collection of Wave 1, 2 and 3 of the International Tobacco Control (ITC) China Survey, with major focus on longitudinal features of the study. Key measures of quality of the survey data, such as retention rates and final sample sizes, are presented. Sample replenishment procedures are outlined, including the addition of a new city, Kunming, at Wave 3. Methods for constructing the longitudinal and cross-sectional survey weights are briefly described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Although it is legal for multiunit housing (MUH) property owners in all 50 states to prohibit smoking on their premises, including in individual units, MUH constitutes a relatively new setting to reduce exposure to secondhand smoke via voluntary smoke-free policy. This paper examines California state-funded smoke-free MUH policy campaigns between 2004 and 2010. Methods A cross-case analysis of 40 state-funded smoke-free MUH policy campaigns was conducted via an examination of final evaluation reports submitted to the California Tobacco Control Program. Results The most effective voluntary smoke-free MUH policy campaigns typically included: (1) learning the local [MUH] context, (2) finding and using a champion, (3) partnering with like-minded organisations, (4) building relationships with stakeholders, (5) collecting and using local data and (6) making a compelling case to decision makers. Discussions The aforementioned steps tended to be intertwined, and successfully securing voluntary smokefree MUH policy required a strategic but flexible plan of implementation prior to entrance into the field. Campaigns designed to enhance voluntary smoke-free MUH policy adoption should underscore the economic viability of such policies during each strategic step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT:This paper estimates the incidence (all ages) of spinal cord neurological impairment (SCI; traumatic and non traumatic) in New Zealand and describes pre-SCI characteristics and early post-SCI outcomes for participants (16-64 years) in this longitudinal study. Demographic and clinical data on all people admitted to New Zealand's two spinal units (mid-2007 to mid-2009 )were included for the estimate of incidence. Participants in this longitudinal study were asked at first interview about pre-SCI socio-demographic, health and behavioural characteristics, and about post-SCI symptoms, general health status (EQ-5D) and disability (WHODAS 12-item). Age-adjusted incidence rates (95% CI) for European,Maori, Pacific and 'Other' ethnicities were 29 (24-34), 46 (30-64), 70 (40-100) and 16 (9-22) per million, respectively. Interviews with 118 (73%) participants (16-64 years), occurred 6.5 months post-SCI. Most reported bother with symptoms, and problems with health status and disability. Compared with Europeans, the incidence of SCI is high among Maori and particularly high among Pacific people. Six months after SCI, proximate to discharge from the spinal units, considerable symptomatic, general health and disability burden was borne by people with SCI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background This paper examines the association between degree of confidence in collective efficacy and self-efficacy for condom use and empowerment among heterogeneous female sex workers (FSWs) in two metropolitan Indian cities with high HIV prevalence. Methods The study utilises data from the Behavioural Tracking Survey, a cross-sectional behavioural study with 2106 FSWs recruited from 411 intervention sites in Mumbai and Thane. The key independent measures used determine the degree of confidence in collective efficacy (belief in the power to achieve goals and address problems together) and outcome measures included: self-efficacy for condom use with occasional clients and condom use with regular partners, self-confidence in handling a crisis situation and public speaking ability. Univariate and multivariate statistical methods were used to examine the study objectives. Results Of the analytical sample of 2106 FSWs, 532 (25.3%) reported high degree of collective efficacy for achieving certain goals and 1534 (72.8%) reported collective efficacy for addressing specific problems. FSWs reporting a higher collective efficacy as compared with those reporting lower collective efficacy were as follows: more likely to negotiate condom use with occasional clients (60.3% vs 19.7%; adjusted OR (AOR) =6.3, 95% CI 4.8 to 8.4) as well as regular partners (62.8% vs 20.2%; AOR =6.4, 95% CI 4.9 to 8.4); confident in facing troublesome stakeholders (73.5% vs 38.8%; AOR =4.3, 95% CI 3.3 to 5.6), confident in supporting fellow FSWs in a crisis (76.1% vs 49.6%; AOR =2.9, 95% CI 2.2 to 3.7), received help from other FSWs when a client or partner was violent (73.9% vs 46.3%; AOR =3.5, 95% CI 2.7 to 4.5) and had stood up to the police or madams/brokers to help fellow FSWs in the past 1 year (5.8% vs 3.3%; AOR =2.7, 95% CI 1.5 to 4.9). Conclusion The results suggest that the strategy of collectivisation in HIV prevention programme has much broader benefits than merely the promotion of safer sex practices. Future HIV prevention interventions in India and elsewhere may include collectivisation as the core strategy within HIV prevention programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Whether the quality of life (QOL) impacts longevity is an interesting research question that has been investigated only in the context of disease and health-related QOL. This paper aims to examine prospectively whether Control, Autonomy, Selfrealisation, and Pleasure (CASP) scores, a measure of generic QOL, can predict mortality in the British Household Panel Survey sample during 2001-2006. Methods The authors used data from the British Household Panel Survey wave 11 (2001-2002) when CASP was first presented to the participants in the survey. The authors selected all those who were interviewed directly and face to face and who were 40 years or older (N=10 291). The authors followed them for the next five waves (waves 12-16) and in this study primary outcome was all-cause mortality. Other covariates used were age, sex, socioeconomic position, household income, self-rated health, limiting longstanding illness and medical conditions. Results Compared with a mortality of 12/1000 personyears in those having average QOL (CASP score 29.4-45.8), those with below-average QOL had more than twice (27/1000 person-years) and those above average had a third less (8/1000 person-years) mortality. This gradient was retained for the most part when age and sex strata were examined separately. Regression models adjusted for covariates confirmed the protective effect of QOL on mortality. Domain-specific analysis showed that only control and self-realisation had this effect. Conclusion CASP predicted 5-year all-cause mortality significantly. Improvement in the QOL reduced the probability of death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Associations between the characteristics of the family environment, in particular poverty and family structure, and cognitive development are well established, yet little is known about the role of timing and accumulation of risk in early childhood. The aim of this paper is to assess the associations between income poverty, family instability and cognitive development in early childhood. In particular, it tests the relative role of family economic hardship compared with family instability in affecting cognitive functioning at the age of 5 years. Methods: The study draws on data from the UK Millennium Cohort, linking data collected in infancy, age 3, and age 5 years. Cognitive ability was directly assessed at age 5 years with the British Ability Scales. Using regression models we examine associations between persistent income poverty, family transitions, and children's cognitive ability, controlling for family demographics and housing conditions, as well as child characteristics. Results: The findings suggest that the experience of persistent economic hardship as well as very early poverty undermines cognitive functioning at 5 years of age. Family instability shows no significant association with cognitive functioning after controlling for family poverty, family demographics, housing and a set of control variables indicating child characteristics. Conclusions: Persistent poverty is a crucial risk factor undermining children's cognitive development more so than family instability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background More than 700 UK residents were tested for possible contamination with polonium-210 (210Po) following the alleged poisoning of Mr Alexander Litvinenko in London in November 2006. This paper describes the epidemiology of internal contamination with the radionuclide in this group. Methods 11 locations in London had been identified as sufficiently environmentally contaminated with 210Po to present a health risk to people associated with them. Public health consultant teams identified individuals at risk and offered 24-h urine testing for 210Po excretion. Prevalence of internal contamination was estimated, and a retrospective cohort analysis was completed for each location. Results Overall 139 individuals (prevalence 0.19 (95% CI 0.13 to 0.27)) showed evidence of internal contamination with 210Po, although none with uptakes likely to cause adverse health effects. Substantial prevalence was seen among specific hotel service staff, customers, staff and other users of a hotel bar, office and hospital staff, staff of one restaurant and residents of and visitors to the family home. Increased risks of contamination were seen for a hotel bar in association with occupational, behavioural and temporal factors. Occupational and guest exposure to contaminated areas of hotels were also associated with increased contamination risk. Nurses were more likely to become contaminated than other staff involved in direct patient care. Conclusions Uptake of trace amounts of radionuclide in this incident was frequent. Occupational, behavioural and temporal gradients in contamination risk were mostly consistent with a priori site risk assessments. Utility of the investigation methods and findings for future accidental or deliberate environmental contamination incidents are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Alcohol use in Russia has a number of relatively distinct features which have been shown to be strongly associated with mortality. The aim of this paper is to investigate how specific aspects of Russian drinking behaviour and its consequences are related to scores obtained from the internationally recognised AUDIT instrument for detecting alcohol problems. Design Population-based age-stratified cross sectional survey. Setting Izhevsk, Russia. Participants 925 men aged 25–59 years. Main outcome measure Men and proxy respondents completed an interview including questions on alcohol consumption and socio-economic and demographic variables. These included questions on six drinking behaviours and their consequences. These were: going on zapoi (a period of continuous drunkenness of two or more days); drinking non- beverage alcohol; frequency of excessive drunkenness; frequency of hangover; drinking before noon and frequency of sleeping in clothes at night because of drunkenness. The men also completed a Self Completed Questionnaire containing questions constituting the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT). Results There was a strong association with AUDIT score and hazardous drinking (one or more episodes of zapoi in the past year or drinking non beverage alcohol or twice a week or more occurrence of excessive drunkenness, hangover or going to sleep at night clothed because of drunkenness) using both proxy and self report of drinking behaviours (self-report OR 5.25 95% CI 2.86 to to 9.65). The association was stronger when proxy report was used (proxy-report OR 6.66 95% CI 4.00 to to 11.07). The same pattern was seen for all the drinking behaviours individually. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a two factor structure for the AUDIT measuring alcohol consumption and alcohol related problems. Hazardous drinking behaviour specific to Russia was more strongly associated with AUDIT questions relating to alcohol related problems than to questions measuring consumption. Conclusions The drinking behaviours used in this paper are unconventional measures of hazardous drinking. The strong association with AUDIT shows that both self and in particular proxy report of distinctive directly observable drinking behaviours provide useful data on alcohol consumption and abuse in Russian men. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper describes the design features, data collection methods and analytical strategies of the ITC China Survey, a prospective cohort study of 800 adult smokers and 200 adult non-smokers in each of six cities in China . In addition to features and methods which are common to ITC surveys in other countries, the ITC China Survey possesses unique features in frame construction, a large first phase data enumeration and sampling selection; and it uses special techniques and measures in training, field work organisation and quality control. It also faces technical challenges in sample selection and weight calculation when some selected upper level clusters need to be replaced by new ones owing to massive relocation exercises within the cities. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]