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Abstracts of papers presented to the 45th Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching are arranged according to the topic for the session at which they were presented. Series of sessions were devoted to test and instrument development, evaluation, learning theory, verbal behavior, instructional methods and materials, student achievement, and teacher preparation. Single sessions were held for the presentation of research papers on teacher characteristics, student characteristics, and the history and philosophy of science. Abstracts of addresses to general sessions (on various aspects of science education research) by Raths, Sutman, and Broudy are included, as well as lists of the participants in two symposia (environmental education and the problems of beginning teachers). Papers on elementary, secondary, and college level science education are included for most topics. (AL)

PRESENTED ARE A SELECTED GROUP OF PAPERS CHOSEN FROM THOSE GIVEN AT TWO INSTITUTES ON FOSTERING AND REINFORCING INNOVATIVE BEHAVIOR IN SELECTED SCHOOL PERSONNEL. THE TOPICS PRESENTED INCLUDE--(1) THE VALUE OF RESEARCH IN THE CLASSROOM, (2) THE NECESSITY FOR TEACHERS TO BE INNOVATIVE, (3) THE FACTORS RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT, (4) THE USE OF PROGRAMED MATERIAL IN THE CLASSROOM, (5) THE NEED FOR SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS TO HAVE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES, AND (6) THE NECESSITY FOR INNOVATION AND EVALUATION WHEN APPLYING FOR FUNDS UNDER THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION ACT. SOME BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES ARE INCLUDED WITH THE PAPERS. (ES)

This publication contains sixteen abstracts of papers presented at the Research Reporting Sessions of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Annual Meeting. The investigations reported by Anthony, Creswell, Higgins, and Weise focus on curriculum and classroom innovations in the school mathematics program. Investigations by Gibbons, Pearce, Rector, and Wells relate to instruction and methods for teaching mathematical concepts. Research presented by Carry, Fey, Miller, and Vigilante is concerned with certain logical inference patterns and reasoning abilities in students. Bell and Gorth report the results of a survey of mathematics teachers with respect to current issues and a new design for evaluation in mathematics. Research on behavioral objectives for a seventh grade mathematics and for a freshman calculus course is reported by Bierden and Picard. (RP)

This working paper presents six analyses first reported at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, August 31, 1968. Most of the individual chapters were written independently. All are, however, concerned with the Youth in Transition Project, a nationwide longitudinal study of adolescent boys. The five chapters presenting findings are all based on the initial cross-sectional data collection. The analyses include: (1) the design and sample for a nationwide longitudinal study of adolescent boys; (2) the development of a summary measure of socio-economic status; (3) intellectual aptitudes and abilities: (a) relationship to selected criteria, and (b) environmental factors and racial differences in test performance; (4) a preliminary investigation of status inconsistency effects; (5) dimensions of adjustment in adolescent boys: Negro-white comparisons; and (6) achievement motivation, grades, and instrumentality. (IM)

In adult education, there are seven essential activities if evaluation is to have maximum use: understanding, specifying, describing, comparing, judging, valuing, and influencing. It is also necessary to understand the objectives being evaluated--their level (agency, program, project or course, and/or instructional) and kind (output objectives or objectives which help secure output); their characteristics (results of decisions, discriminatory, predictive, pluralistic, realistic, etc.). Objectives must also be understood as a system or parts of a system (content, behavior, and experience) and as having a role and function in programing (relationship to program purpose, source of the objectives and degree of commitment, meaning of objectives to those involved, guide or contract, etc.). The main problem in evaluation is getting good objectives written and used effectively in programing because of failure to deal with objectives as decision-making or failure to adjust concepts to overcome erroneous assumptions. The prospects for evaluating the attainment of objectives as a tool in programing depend upon adult educators building a concept of objectives and their use which is adjustable in adult education situations. (A fourteen-page bibliography accompanies the monograph.) (AG)

This review of research related to college and university science teaching and learning is based upon reports published from 1965 through 1967 and contained in the collection of the ERIC Information Analysis Center for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education. The 77 studies are abstracted under the following headings, with a short summary of the major generalizations made for each section: Instructional Procedures; Teacher Education; Equipment and Materials; Curriculum; Achievement; Science and Society; Administration and Supervision; Evaluation and Educational Objectives; and Teacher and Student Characteristics. A general summary comments upon weaknesses found in the research, identifies areas that need additional research, and comments on the lack of relationship between college courses and the secondary school science courses that students have taken. The bibliography includes ordering information for those studies cited that are available from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service. (AL)

The study has examined variations in family socialization practices among Anglo-Americans and Mexican-Americans and the effect of these practices on achievement values, self-concept, and educational achievement. Data were collected and analyzed on 102 junior high school students and their families. Factor analysis techniques and Guttmen Scaling were used to generate a series of measures that describe the achievement training and independence training that the child experiences in the home, his self concept, and achievement value orientations. The Mexican-Americans studied apparently experienced much less independence training than did their Anglo peers. Mexican-American boys in particular were granted little autonomy in decision making; had little confidence in their ability to succeed in school, and were fatalistic about the future despite the high level of achievement training to which they are exposed in the home. Results suggest that direct attempts to encourage greater academic effort on the part of the student may actually inhibit academic performance. In contrast, parental independence training results in significant gains in achievement among both groups. This is accomplished by increasing the student's confidence in coping with his physical and social environment, especially with the classroom situation where students are expected to perform independently. (Author/JMB)

Laboratory research and initial studies of the effects of goal setting in the classroom indicate that goal setting increases achievement. Thus, goal setting may prove to be an effective motivational technique for use in the schools. Goal setting, however, is influenced by many factors such as knowledge of results, explicitness of goals, difficulty of goals, origin of goals, and monetary incentives. Research concerning the effects of these factors is reviewed to provide a basis for the development of classroom goal setting procedures. Classroom studies dealing with conferences and with goal setting are also summarized. Suggestions are provided for research to delineate the effects of goal setting variables in the classroom and for formative evaluations of goal setting procedures. (Author)

A review of the literature indicates that measures of the McClelland-Atkinson need-Achievement (nAch) construct are weak in terms of both reliability and validity. The most serious weakness of the model's validity is the lack of evidence for the hypothesized positive relationship between nAch and performance. In addition, the inverse relationship between the probability of success and the incentive value of success is not supported. The nAch model is shown to be closely related to expectancy theory. The success of the nAch construct in predicting risk preference is explained with an analysis of the information obtainable by attempting tasks of different probabilities of success. Moderate risks are shown to offer maximum information, whereas tasks of high or low risk offer minimum information. Hence, what has been termed "need Achievement" is reconceptualized as the willingness to seek information about one's own performance capacity. This, in turn, is related to processes of social comparison. Information on academic performance must be presented in such a way as to minimize threats to the student's self-esteem. The analysis is related specifically to individualization of instruction and integration of classrooms. (Author)

This report presents a summary of research in science education at the secondary level during the years 1965-1967. The report is organized around the findings of investigations in several areas, including teacher education, teacher and student characteristics, evaluation and educational objectives, instructional procedures and classroom organization, programed instruction, achievement, attitudes and interests, the culturally disadvantaged, science and society, and the administration of science programs. Science education researchers are provided with (1) background information for their own studies, (2) sources of material, (3) ideas for aspects of science education which should be investigated, and (4) opinions which might be relevant to their professional efforts. The bibliography of 183 documents lists both the documents included in the text of the review and other documents analyzed but not included in the review. (LC)

This pilot project sought to determine if instruction in achievement motivation would help potential dropouts to complete their schooling. Subjects were tenth grade students in a suburban Boston high school. A one-week residential course during winter and spring vacations was taken by one group of six boys and a second group of four. Equated matched control groups were set up. Course content consisted of learning about the achievement syndrome, exercises in self-study, planning future activities, and learning individual responsibility from group living. Findings show that fully trained boys (those who remained in the course for the full five days) had improved academic performance and better attitudes toward school. On the whole, however, the results are said to be inconclusive. The project gains significance largely because the study is one of the very few which show that intervention can produce a significant improvement in "hard core" problem boys. (NH)

EMPLOYMENT PROSPECTS OF SCHOOL DROPOUTS ARE SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER THAN FOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES. REASONS FOR DROPPING OUT OF SCHOOL AS DETERMINED FROM TEACHERS, DROPOUTS, AND RECORDS INCLUDE LOW ACADEMIC APTITUDE, RETARDED EMOTIONAL MATURITY AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, LACK OF INTEREST, ECONOMIC REASONS, AND MARRIAGE AND PREGNANCY. ON THE AVERAGE, DROPOUTS ARE RATED AT THE LOWER END OF INTELLIGENCE SCALE AND SCORE LOWER IN SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT. CHARACTERISTICS OF POTENTIAL DROPOUTS INCLUDE FAILURE TO ACHIEVE IN REGULAR SCHOOL WORK, AN AGE OF 16 YEARS OR MORE, OW READING ABILITY, GRADE LEVEL PLACEMENT 2 OR MORE YEARS BELOW AVERAGE FOR GRADE, IRREGULAR ATTENDANCE, AND FREQUENT TARDINESS. THE POTENTIAL DROPOUT CAN BE DESCRIBED AND IDENTIFIED WITH A FAIR DEGREE OF ACCURACY AT LEAST 5 YEARS BEFORE THE DROPOUT OCCURS. THE NUMBER OF DROPOUTS CAN BE REDUCED BY APPROPRIATELY DESIGNED SCHOOL-COMMUNITY PROGRAMS. SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMS USUALLY INCLUDE--A COMMUNITY-WIDE EFFORT INVOLVING SCHOOL, STUDENTS, PARENTS, AND WELFARE AGENTS, DIRECT CONTACT AND INVOLVEMENT OF PARENTS, A LONG-RANGE PROGRAM BEGINNING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND CONTINUING THROUGH THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, FLEXIBLE PROGRAMS TO MEET NEEDS OF THE POTENTIAL DROPOUT, A HIGHER THAN NORMAL RATIO OF INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF, A FULLY STAFFED PUPIL PERSONNEL TEAM WHICH INCLUDES COUNSELORS, PSYCHOLOGISTS, SOCIAL WORKERS, AND HEALTH WORKERS, PROVISIONS FOR WORK EXPERIENCES, AND A CONCENTRATED EFFORT TO DEVELOP THE VALUES AND ATTITUDES FROM WHICH THE STUDENT DERIVES THE MOTIVATION TO STAY IN SCHOOL AND PREPARE FOR WORK. OFFICE OF EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES RELATED TO SCHOOL DROPOUTS AND YOUTH EMPLOYMENT INCLUDE GRANT-IN-AID AND CONTRACT PROGRAMS, PROFESSIONAL PROGRAMS AND PROFESSIONAL LEADERSHIP AND SERVICES. OTHER AGENCIES HAVE SPONSORED PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES RELATED TO THE HOLDING POWER OF SCHOOLS, RECLAMATION OF DROPOUTS, AND YOUTH EMPLOYMENT.

Alternate hypotheses are given for Neale's findings that attitudes toward mathematics have little effect on achievement. A schemata of proposed research on affective factors in mathematics learning is presented. (JG)

This is a collection of 20 abstracts of research papers presented at the 50th annual meeting of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Four papers were presented at each of five research reporting sections: (1) mathematics instruction and instructional materials, (2) aspects of mathematics learning, (3) general research topics in mathematics education, (4) mathematics achievement and its correlates, and (5) teacher education and evaluation. Topics covered include the teaching of division, CAI, feedback, solving open sentences, learning strategies, studying mathematics texts, negations and problem solving, low achievers, addition and subtraction, remedial mathematics in the junior college, inquiry-centered teaching, mastery learning at the elementary level, mathematics teachers' learning strategies, teacher education, videotapes and audiotapes in questioning, and evaluation of elementary school teachers. (JM)

This paper suggests a model for occupational careers based on the outcome of job shifts. This outcome may be described by a difference equation, where the gain is a function of the prestige and income of the job left and a person's level of resources. The career model is obtained as a solution to this difference equation. The resulting age profile is governed by a parameter: b-sub-one. This parameter is interpreted to measure the degree to which the occupational structure provides opportunities for gains in occupational achievement, given unchanged resources of the individual. On the individual job shift level, this is argued as being reflected in the degree of control individuals have on their job shifts. The increment in return on resources due to job shifts is also argued to be determined by structural characteristics. The interpretation of the parameters is tested with satisfactory results. References are included. (Author)

This paper criticizes the work of Barak Rosenshine on the effects of teachers on student achievement. The author cautions against accepting Rosenshine's generalizations on teaching techniques. He makes the specific criticisms that Rosenshine a) did not operationally define student achievement, b) did not assess the validity of the student achievement measures used in his work, c) did not determine whether the achievement measures were appropriate to the students sampled, d) did not determine whether or not achievement measures were related to the curriculum objectives of the teachers, and e) combined the results of various studies without examining the relationships among them. Further, the author makes recommendations for future research on the topic. (JB)

The purpose of this paper was to explore the literature to see what differences, if any, exist between the sexes in mathematics achievement from pre-school through high school levels. Thirty-three studies were reported. Findings showed that there were no significant differences between boys' and girls' mathematics achievement in pre-school or early elementary years. In upper elementary and early high school years, significant differences were not always apparent; however, when significant differences did appear they were more apt to be in the boys' favor when the higher-level cognitive tasks were being measured and in the girls' favor when lower-level cognitive tasks were measured. No conclusions were reached concerning high school learners. Six questions were raised concerning the relationship between sex differences and mathematics achievement. (DT)

This research studies both students' and teachers' divergent and convergent abilities and their interaction within the normal classroom. Divergence and convergence were operationally defined and measured by paper and pencil tests. After reviewing the literature on divergence and convergence and on divergence and classroom achievement, the authors present their own research conducted with 450 high school students and 20 of their teachers. Results indicate that the divergent student is not considered less appealing than his convergent peer in the classroom; in fact, the diverger distinguishes himself by participating more often and offering more original ideas. In terms of the teachers, classroom climate appears to be highly dependent on their cognitive styles. The authors feel that educational researchers must consider the classroom within the multivariate-interactive model, since a simple univariate approach does not project a clear interaction of the underlying classroom processes. (Author/SES)

The mathematical models of this paper were developed as an outgrowth of working with the Comprehensive Achievement Monitoring project (Project CAM) which was conceived as a model and application of sampling procedures such as those used in industrial quality control techniques to educational measurement. This paper explores mathematical modeling techniques to gain insight into the role of achievement testing in the instructional process. All assumptions are listed, three models are presented, and computational examples provided. Each model centers on one of the following: 1) instruction given in a finite amount of time; 2) instructional activities in an individually-paced curriculum; and 3) tests used to group students for instruction. (Author/CK)

In this seventh paper of the Research Review Series, commissioned by the Science and Mathematics Education Information Analysis Center in cooperation with the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 189 studies in the ERIC SE collection which are concerned with secondary school science, published in 1968 or 1969, are cited and analyzed. Tables show the prime science discipline focus of the documents, the type of report analyzed, and the primary subject categories of the research. The research findings are summarized and illustrated by selected report which the reviewer considered effectively characterized the results; were clear, representative and generalizable; showed adequate methodology; or, occasionally, illustrated a particular point (good or bad). The summary is arranged under the following headings: Learning Theory and Processes; Teacher Characteristics; Teacher Education; Curriculum Development; International Education; Student Characteristics; Evaluation; Academic Achievement; Educational Programs; and Instructional Procedures. Some comments on the inadequacies of the research reviewed, and suggestions for overcoming these, are made. (AL)

This paper examines the problem of measuring and evaluation teacher performance. Evaluation methods currently in use are reviewed, including the use of student questionnaires, and a recommendation for a more accurate measurement of teacher effectiveness is made. The authors specifically consider the relative merits of measurement based on student performance (direct measurement) and measurement based on teaching activities (indirect measurement) as they relate to the evaluation of faculty. This paper is based on a study performed by J. Marvin Cook for the Faculty Senate, University of Maryland, Baltimore County. (WVM)

The 1966 Invitational Conference on Testing Problems dealt with the innovations of the new age of flexibility and the problems of evaluating and preparing for them. Papers presented in Session I, Innovation and Evaluation, were: (1) "Innovation and Evaluation: In Whose Hands?" by Nils Y. Wessell; (2) "The Discovery and Development of Educational Goals" by Henry S. Dyer; (3) "The Meaning of Impact" by Martin Trow; (4) "Unconventionality, Triangulation, and Inference" by Eugene J. Webb; and (5) "The Prediction of Academic and Nonacademic Accomplishment" by John L. Holland. The luncheon address was "Education's Age of Flexibility" by Francis Keppel. Papers presented at Session II, Natural Language and Computers in Education, were: (1) "An Interactive Inquirer" by Philip J. Stone; (2) "The Natural-Language Approach to Psychometrics" by Carl E. Helm; and (3) "Grading Essays by Computer: Progress Report" by Ellis Batten Page. A list of conference participants concludes the report. (KM)

This paper is concerned with measuring achievement levels of medical students. Precise tools are needed to assess the readiness of an individual to practice. The basic question then becomes, what can this candidate do, at a given time, under given circumstances. Given the definition of the circumstances, and the candidate's performance, the necessary evaluation of competence can be made. The University of Illinois College of Medicine has developed the "Minimum Passing Level" (MPL), which is a score point which reflects the minimum level of performance a student must achieve to progress at the normal rate or to be certified as eligible for the degree Doctor of Medicine. Both multiple choice examinations and simulated problems in patient management are used. A performance level must be established by examiners for each item seperately. The options are weighted on each item and given a weight from high negative to high positive. After the essential positive options and the not allowable negative options have been identified, the option scores are summed to determine the minimum required passing level. Disadvantages include: (1) subjective judgements, and (2) confusion regarding results and methods. (author/KJ)

It is contended that a person becomes an underachiever because of: (1) personality or psychological problems; (2) poor school preparation; (3) working toward underachievement as an assertion of independence; (4) inadequate self concept; and (5) poor impulse control. The bulk of the paper is devoted to describing the bases and procedures of two group approaches which the author uses with underachievers. One of these, the Human Potential Seminar, is specifically designed for those persons who are not using their potentiality but would like to be. The process is described. The other approach, termed Success Groups, focuses on those students who underachieve in order to demonstrate independence or retain dependence on their parents. These "committed" underachievers must be interrupted in their efforts. Contracts are made with the group and written commitments to specific grade point achievement goals are demanded. While academic achievement is the overall goal (success rate = 72%), results also indicate markedly improved self concepts. (TL)

The 4 reports contained in this document present the results of a pilot study of differential coping behavior among siblings. The IRGOP researchers proposed to investigate the factors related to why some children achieve well in school and thereby take the first step in moving out of poverty. Four areas of concern -- human development, sociology, education, and home economics -- are combined in this interdisciplinary approach to study teenagers' school coping behavior. The reports address themselves to data gleaned from the pilot study in which 196 single-parented teenagers from Tompkins County, New York, were interviewed. The paper by Nellie Brodis explores child-rearing practices which may cause dissimilar school achievement among welfare and non-welfare children. Michael Rogoff's paper describes in detail the measurement of academic achievement used for this IRGOP study. Rose Anne Negele attempts to identify the kinds of maternal behavior and aspirations which are essential for high academic performance in fatherless adolescent girls. The final paper, by Philip Lewin, discusses the importance of teenagers' housing satisfaction and school success. (DK)

THE TOPICS OF EIGHT CONFERENCE PAPERS INCLUDE (1) THE PROBLEM OF DIFFERENTIATING EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC INSTRUCTION FROM EFFECTS OF OTHER INFLUENCES (GROWTH, ENVIRONMENT, AND SELF-INSTRUCTION), (2) CRITERIA FOR MEASURING CHANGE IN PROFICIENCY, AND (3) WAYS OF RELATING SUCH CHANGE TO OUTSIDE VARIABLES SUCH AS MEASURABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS AND INSTRUCTORS, AND METHODOLOGY. THE ISSUE OF ACCEPTABLE CRITERIA (PERFORMANCE MEASURES) OF DEGREES OF LEARNING DURING PRACTICE IS DISCUSSED. SUGGESTIONS ARE OUTLINED FOR IMPROVING EXPERIMENTATION BY ASSEMBLING ALL APPROPRIATE MEASUREMENTS AND DATA, USING ORDERED HYPOTHESES, AND TREATING EXPERIMENTAL CLASSROOMS AS SINGLE SUBJECTS. THE BROMWOODS RESIDENTIAL CENTER STUDY OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY DESCRIBES THE FAILURE OF RESIDENTIAL STUDENTS TO SIGNIFICANTLY SURPASS ADULT EVENING CLASSES IN OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE (BEGINNING PSYCHOLOGY) OR IN IMPROVED MEASURED ATTITUDE. ALSO, DIFFICULTIES IN APPLICATION OF CRITERIA IN NAVAL MAINTENANCE TRAINING RESEARCH ARE DOCUMENTED, AND CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES ARE INDICATED. A PAPER ON THE CURVILINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND TEST PERFORMANCE ARGUES FOR FINAL EXAMINATIONS AS THE BEST EXISTING INDICANT OF LEARNING. OTHER PAPERS OUTLINE A FRAMEWORK FOR STUDYING CRITERION MEASURES AND THEIR GENERALIZABILITY ACROSS SAMPLES, SITUATIONS, AND CONTEXTS, AND EVALUATE PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION AMONG NAVAL TRAINEES AS A PREDICTOR OF CLASSROOM LEARNING. THE DOCUMENT INCLUDES TABLES, FIGURES, AND REFERENCES. (LY)

THIS PAPER EXAMINES THE CONCEPT OF "EQUALITY OF EDUCATION" IN TERMS OF ITS MEANING TO SOCIETY. THE AUTHOR DISCUSSES WHAT THE CONCEPT HAS MEANT IN THE PAST, BEGINNING WITH PRE-INDUSTRIAL EUROPE AND ENDING WITH THE UNITED STATES OFFICE OF EDUCATION'S SURVEY, "EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY." HE ALSO SUGGESTS WHAT THE CONCEPT, AS IT HAS EVOLVED TO THE PRESENT, WILL MEAN IN THE FUTURE. HE ASKS THE QUESTIONS--WHOSE OBLIGATION IS IT TO PROVIDE SUCH EQUALITY. IS THE CONCEPT A FUNDAMENTALLY SOUND ONE, OR DOES IT HAVE INHERENT CONTRADICTIONS OR CONFLICTS WITH SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. THE AUTHOR SEES THE BASIC CHANGE IN THE CONCEPT OF "EQUALITY OF EDUCATION" AS EVOLVING FROM THE PROVISION OF EQUAL LEARNING FACILITIES FOR ALL WITHOUT CONCERN FOR INDIVIDUAL, EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES, TO AN ACTIVE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE TYPE OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM THAT WILL OVERCOME INDIVIDUAL HANDICAPS RESULTING FROM ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS. THIS PAPER WAS PREPARED FOR A CONFERENCE ON THE U.S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION REPORT ON "EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY" OCT. 21, 1967, HARVARD, CAMBRIDGE. (RP)

Weiner, et al, (1971) presented a model of achievement-related behavior which outlined how causal ascriptions might mediate between stimulus conditions and achievement-oriented responses. This model assumed that individuals allocate the causes of success and failure to four elements (ability, effort, luck and task difficulty), and that each of these causal attributions would produce different behavioral and emotional reactions. Other studies (Bar-Tal and Frieze, 1973; Kukla, 1972; Weiner and Kukla, 1970; and Weiner and Potepan, 1970) have demonstrated that high and low achievement motivation subgroups display differential causal attributional patterns which may explain their varying responses to achievement situations. These findings indicate the need for better understanding and modification of attributional patterns of individuals low in achievement motivation. Possible ways of initiating such changes are reviewed in the context of the educational process. (Author)

This report defines spatial ability operationally (consisting of three components) and reviews possible sex differences in this ability as reported in the literature. The relationship between mathematical ability and spatial ability is discussed. Researchable hypotheses about how differential spatial ability may effect mathematics achievement are suggested. (Author/LS)