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In this paper, education is treated as a form of investment. No attempt is made to measure the contribution of education to economic growth. Internal rates of return to investment in education in India for the year 1960-61 are estimated and compared with Professor A. C. Harberger's estimate of the rates of return to physical capital, "Net" education capital formation during the period 1950-51 to 1960-61 is also estimated at 1960-61 prices and compared with physical capital formation during the same period. The study indicates that education is not an attractive form of investment when compared with physical capital. Within the educational system, primary education is the most attractive and collegiate nonprofessional education the least attractive form of investment. The study suggests diversion of resources in favor of physical capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept that joint family households will prove a barrier to the emergence of conjugal role patterns was tested for a sample in Dharwar, India. It was found that living with close kin was not highly correlated with a major increase in husband and wife avoiding one another. Urbanization and education, however, resulted in a significant increase in conjugal role patterns. Education and urbanization do not lead to a decline in joint family households. Rather, both seem to lead to changes in the content of roles within all types of household. Goode's concept that education will lead to conjugal family patterns before industrialization is supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to analyse the influence exerted by production relations on the introduction of improved technology into agriculture. Since the argument is set in the specific context of some east Indian villages, it is hoped that such an analysis will help to provide at least part of the explanation for the prevailing backwardness of agriculture in this region. Nevertheless, as the argument is conducted in terms of a highly schematised and hence quite unrealistic model, it deserves to be emphasised that many of the central assumptions of the model are based on data and impressions collected by the present author from 26 villages in West Bengal during 1970. Consequently, the particular assumptions of this model may or may not hold for other regions of India or elsewhere. But the relationship between technology and production relations is of general relevance, notwithstanding the particular context of West Bengal villages. Indeed, this interaction between technology and production relations--in Marxian terminology the interaction between "the forces and the relations of production"--is central to the theory of historical materialism. And, from this point of view, the present study is an attempt to illustrate in a precise form and in a specific context this general idea of Marx. Needless to say, the precision is obtained only at the cost of considerable simplification of Marx's original idea as well as a stark schematisation of the prevailing production relations in agriculture in those east Indian villages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the impact of target setting on a Family Planning Program in the North Indian State of Uttar Pradesh. The author argues that over-concern with target setting has led to a number of negative results including high percentages of marginal cases brought for vasectomy, and low morale on the part of family planning personnel. Trained in extensive education techniques, they have been forced to place quantity above quality once they begin their work out in the districts. The author provides no easy answer to this tension between targets and extension educators, but the problem, which he has, raised needs consideration in a developing country concerned with implementing an effective program of population control. According to the author, the emphasis of the large incentive fee approach represents a rejection of the extension education approach. Extension educators' morale, which was already low, may have deteriorated further as less use was made of extension education techniques. Apparently, a quantity-oriented approach continues to take precedence over a quality-oriented extension education approach in the family planning program of Uttar Pradesh.

The article examines developments in higher education in India. Developments in higher education sponsored by National Council of Educational Research and Training and recommended in the Kothari Report seem to be going a long way towards addressing problems in education in the country. The role of institutions has been changed, the limited money available reallocated, courses and methods changed in such a way that students' motivation is likely to be stronger and therefore less disciplined. The biggest problem in higher education was said to be to make people more practical, to integrate theory and practice.

This article discusses about the history of education in India. The history of education in India should be a record of high value to educators and statesmen for India has the second largest educational task in the world. On it live people that speak 225 different languages and dialects. The country presents language, religious and financial problems on a remarkably large scale. The country has been for some time controlled by an Occidental people, it therefore offers opportunity to study the development of education when two different civilizations come in contact and often in conflict.

The article focuses on the relationship of caste system with measured intelligence and academic achievement of students in India. Caste system is one of the institutions peculiar to India. Because of its relationship with religion, the orthodox Hindus believe that society has been divinely ordained on the basis of a hierarchy of four castes, the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaish and the Sudra. The system separates people belonging to different castes by rules limiting contacts or enjoining avoidances, such as restrictions on marriage and limitations on eating together. stage of life, the studentship. Conditions have since changed. Industrialization, spread of education, and democratization of political structure have resulted in considerable modification and relaxation of some of the rigidities of the caste system. Greater work opportunities are being created with a growth of various new occupations. Selection for type of work now depends upon individual achievement rather than the caste or the ancestral occupation. However, India is still a quite immobile, socialistic, agricultural country of great size, where castes are still struggling to maintain their isolation.

Interview data lend little support to the view that the caste system obstructs occupational change in India. Intergenerational mobility is frequent among rural and urban castes but it is generally confined to occupations of similar rank. Hence, mobility has a negligible effect upon the traditional association between positions in the caste and occupational hierarchies. This association is attributable to differences among castes in educational attainment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses attributes of the Supreme Court judges in India. Technically, appointments to the Supreme Court are made by the President of India "after consultation with judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts in the States as the President may deem necessary. It is most unlikely that any judge reached the nation's highest tribunal from essentially humble social or economic origins. Currently, the maximum strength of the Court is fourteen judges, Including the Chief. Thirty-one are Hindu, four are Muslim, and one Vivian Bose is a Christian. Half of these men received some part of their higher education in England, and the others were educated entirely in India. Several in the former category received a baccalaureate degree first in India, and then a second one in England. Before being inducted into the Supreme Court, these men had very similar professional socialization experiences. From 1861 to 1935, at least one-third of the judges of each High Court had to be members of the elite Indian Civil Service.

The article focuses on the environment of legal education in Bihar, to assess the pressures and demands for its reorientation, and to explore the changing complexion of the legal profession by an appraisal of the law college students. The departure of the British opened new, competing, career alternatives, and a widening net of education undercut the advantages of wealth, family and castes New social conditions have not only required the advocate to rely upon different sources for his legal income-they have begun to transform the nature of the profession itself. There are ten law colleges in Bihar, attached to the five degree-granting universities in the state. Five of the colleges educate about four- fifths of the state's law students, and have enrollments ranging from 530 to 850. The technological and scientific educational base in post-independence Bihar was comparatively undeveloped and advances in these branches of education have been proportionally greater than the Indian average.