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Calls for increased monitoring and evaluation of education policies and practices have not, so far, included widespread and consistent assessments of the inclusiveness of education settings. Measuring inclusion in education has proven to be a challenging exercise, due not only to the complexity and different uses of the concept, but also to its holistic nature. Indeed, measuring inclusion implies analysing a variety of policy areas within education systems, while also considering the different roles of the system, the school and the classroom. This paper discusses the application of the input-process-outcome model to the measurement of inclusion in education, and key indicators that can be adopted by education systems and schools to this end. It makes considerations relevant to policy makers when designing indicators to measure inclusion, such as the extent of their application, the constraints related to data disaggregation and the relevance of intersectional approaches to inclusion.

Principals (policy makers) have debated the progress in U.S. student performance for a half century or more. Informing these conversations, survey agents have administered seven million psychometrically linked tests in math and reading in 160 waves to national probability samples of selected cohorts born between 1954 and 2007. This study is the first to assess consistency of results by agency. We find results vary by agent, but consistent with Flynn effects, gains are larger in math than reading, except for the most recent period. Non-whites progress at a faster pace. Socio-economically disadvantaged white, black, and Hispanic students make greater progress when tested in elementary school, but that advantage attenuates and reverses itself as students age. We discuss potential moderators.

Indigenous peoples have rightful aspirations for their languages and cultures, supported under international conventions, jurisdictional treaties, laws, policies and enquiry recommendations. Additionally, the inclusion of Indigenous languages in education can impact positively on Indigenous students' learning, engagement, identity and well-being, and can increase involvement of their communities in education. This working paper provides an overview of Indigenous languages learning in Aotearoa New Zealand, Australia and Canada. These three jurisdictions participate in an OECD initiative "Promising Practices in Supporting Success for Indigenous Students," designed to help education systems to improve the experiences and outcomes of Indigenous students in education. The significance of Indigenous languages constitutes common ground between the diverse Indigenous peoples in these three countries. But learning in Indigenous languages and learning Indigenous languages follow diverse pathways with local language programme designs that fit the different historical and contemporary language contexts within and between the countries.

Resilience refers to the capacity of individuals to prosper despite encountering adverse circumstances. This paper defines academic resilience as the ability of 15-year-old students from disadvantaged backgrounds to perform at a certain level in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in reading, mathematics and science that enables them to play an active role in their communities and prepares them to make the most of lifelong-learning opportunities. Using data from the most recent PISA cycles, this paper explores changes in the share of resilient students over time (2006-2015); highlights the importance of school environments and resources in mitigating the risk of low achievement for disadvantaged students; and identifies school-level factors that are associated with the likelihood of academic resilience among socio-economically disadvantaged students. Analyses reveal that several countries were able to increase the share of resilient students over time, reflecting improvements in the average performance of students, or a weaker relationship between socio-economic status and performance. In the vast majority of education systems examined, the likelihood of academic resilience among disadvantaged students is lower in schools where students report a negative classroom climate. The paper concludes by exploring school policies and practices that are associated with a positive classroom climate. [This work was supported by a contribution to the PISA programme of work from Vodafone Germany Foundation.]

This paper investigates the impact of economic and social reforms in New Zealand since the mid 1980s on the well-being of children. Although the reforms emphasizing the role of market forces and markedly reducing the welfare state and the direct role of the state in the economy were among the most sweeping in scope and scale in any industrialized democracy, the paper notes that their impact has not been systematically measured by the government. Following an introductory section, Section 2 of the paper provides background including the context of the reforms, the ethnic diversity of the childhood population, and the position of Maori in relation to the reforms. Sections 3 to 7 describe what occurred in family incomes, housing, child health, education, and child protection and youth justice, by outlining the reforms and trends in the well-being of children in each area. Section 8 concludes that the reforms have not led to an overall improvement in the well-being of children. Noted in particular is the widening inequality between ethnic and income groups which has left many Maori and Pacific children and children from one-parent and poorer families relatively worse off. Government agencies have had difficulties in addressing the impact on children. Also noted are advances since the mid 1990s, when the pace of the reform process slowed. The paper concludes by pointing out that the New Zealand experience illustrates the vulnerability of children during periods of social upheaval and change and the importance of having effective mechanisms to monitor, protect, and promote the interests of children. (Contains 151 references.) (Author/KB)

School systems aspire to provide equal opportunity for all, irrespective of socio-economic status (SES). Much of the criticism of recent school reforms that introduce accountability, autonomy, and choice emphasizes their potentially negative consequences for equity. This report provides new evidence on how national features of accountability, autonomy, and choice are related to the equality of opportunity across countries. We estimate whether student achievement depends more or less on SES in school systems employing these institutional features. The rigorous micro-econometric analyses are based on the PISA 2003 data for more than 180,000 students from 27 OECD countries. The main empirical result is that rather than harming disadvantaged students, accountability, autonomy, and choice appear to be tides that lift all boats. The additional choice created by public funding for private schools in particular is associated with a strong reduction in the dependence of student achievement on SES. External exit exams have a strong positive effect for all students that is slightly smaller for low-SES students. The positive effect of regularly using subjective teacher ratings to assess students is substantially larger for low-SES students. The effect of many other accountability devices does not differ significantly by student SES. School autonomy in determining course content is associated with higher equality of opportunity, while equality of opportunity is lower in countries where more schools have autonomy in hiring teachers. Autonomy in formulating the budget and in establishing starting salaries is not associated with the equity of student outcomes. Inequality of opportunity is substantially higher in school systems that track students at early ages. (Contains 19 footnotes, 6 figures and 9 tables.)

This study investigates the differences in the degree of low academic achievement of third and fourth graders living with single-parent families from 11 industrialized countries. The United States ranks first among the countries compared in terms of the achievement gap for children in single- and two-parent families. After controlling for individual and family variables, the gap in the United States shrinks somewhat, but American single-parent children are still more disadvantaged than those in the other countries. Following a cross-national multilevel analysis, which includes family policy and demographic variables at the national level, the study finds single parenthood to be less detrimental where there are family policies equalizing resources between single-parent and other families, such as family or child allowances and parental leave. It also finds that single parenthood is most detrimental for academic achievement in those countries where the percentages of single-parent families are the highest. Findings suggest that policies aimed at increasing family income can offset the detrimental achievement consequences of single parenthood. (Contains 63 references.) (Author/SM)

We consider the question whether pupils from the lower social strata perform better in private government-dependent schools than in public or private-independent schools, using the PISA 2000 data on European high schools. In the eighty's, Coleman and Hoffer (1987) found in the USA that the performance of these pupils was better at religious schools than at comparable public schools. Dronkers and Robert (2003) found in PISA-data for 19 comparable countries that private government-dependent schools are more effective then comparable public schools, also after controlled for characteristics of pupils and parents and the social composition of the school. The main explanation appeared to be a better school climate in private government-dependent schools. Private independent schools were less effective than comparable public schools, but only after controlling for the social composition of the school. As a follow-up we now investigate, again with the PISA-data of these 19 countries, whether this positive effect of private government-dependent schools differs between pupils from different strata. We use various indicators to measure social strata: social, cultural and economic. We expect that the thesis of Coleman & Hoffer does hold for private government-dependent schools, because in these 19 countries they are mostly religious schools, which have more opportunities to form functional communities and create social capital. But for private independent schools, which due to their commercial foundation are less often functional communities, this relation is not expected to hold. However, the results show that public and private schools have mostly the same effects for the same kind of pupils and thus mostly not favor one kind of pupils above another kind of pupils. But private government-dependent schools are slightly more effective for pupils with less cultural capital. However, private independent schools are also more effective for pupils from large families or low status families. (Contains 4 tables, 12 notes and a list of 25 Literature Resources .)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to what children bring to their learning of science. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of the good bad aspects of Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations are presented in three sections, focusing on: (1) differences between what students expect to do and learn in school science programs and what actually occurs; (2) problems students face with abstract ideas and complex experiments, and such difficulties as getting students to think or follow simple instructions, or their lack of reading/practical skills; and (3) motivational factors, the most important relating to differences in expectations between teachers and learners. Major points are summarized in a concluding section, followed by extracts from interviews related to student expectations, capacity, and success. (JN)

The first working paper of the Learning in Science Project, "An Initial Framework," outlined what was then seen as the major aims of the project and suggested how these aims might be achieved by three phases of research: exploratory (to observe teaching/learning in Form 1 to 4 science classrooms and to identify difficulties perceived by various individuals); in-depth (focusing on teaching/learning of selected aspects of science); and action-research (exploring ways of overcoming difficulties/problems identified in the first two phases). Presented in this document is a reconsideration of the initial framework, reviewing major accomplishments of the completed first phase and specifying more clearly plans for the in-depth phase and its relationship to the proposed action-research. Comments obtained during first phase structured/unstructured interviews (from students and school personnel) and observations by project staff have provided three distinct, albeit related, investigatory probes of the in-depth phase: (1) children's science; (2) children's classroom experiences; and (3) children's outlook on science. Each of these aspects of the in-depth phase is discussed and the various types of issues to be explored are considered. The action-research phase will be concerned with developing strategies built on the knowledge gained from the examination of these three areas. (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to written resources. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of the good and bad aspects of Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations are presented and discussed as they relate to materials used by: Form 1 and 2 teachers to guide teaching; Form 1 and 2 students to guide learning; Form 3 and 4 teachers to guide teaching; and Form 3 and 4 students to guide learning. In addition, problems/difficulties with materials at the two levels are compared and contrasted. Included in appendices are additional comments focusing on traditional texts and more recent materials, and on reasons for using audio-visual resources (such as teaching abstract concepts using models and competing with audio-visual influences beyond the school). (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to the draft F1-4 science syllabus (the 1978 draft official science syllabus). The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of the good and bad aspects of Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Teachers' views about the syllabus are presented in the first section, addressing such issues as using or not using the syllabus, familiarity with the syllabus, and changes that should be made (including a greater emphasis on acquisition of process skills and desirable attitudes). The second section considers such issues as why science is being taught in schools and justifying the inclusion of science in the curriculum. Among the general conclusions and questions raised in the final section is the belief that the draft syllabus (presented in an appendix) contains educational and scientific weaknesses. (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to science knowledge/concepts. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of good and bad aspects for Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations focus on: (1) why basic ideas/concepts are not being acquired; (2) concepts and language (considering words having both popular and technical meanings, and the teaching of force); and (3) scientific knowledge and children's experience (considering statements based on established theory and those based on children's experience, and the lack of correspondence due to limitations in children's experiences). Questions raised from discussions of the comments/observations are included. Also included (in an appendix) are extracts from individual interviews in which students were asked their meaning of the word "force." (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to classroom environment. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of the good and bad aspects of Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations are presented and discussed as they relate to three major issues: (1) where science is taught, focusing on classrooms and laboratories; (2) to whom science is taught, focusing on how students are grouped in classes; and (3) how the learning environment is organized, focusing on problems of classroom management and individualized instruction. One conclusion stated in the document is that a good learning environment is not dependent solely on the teachers, learners, classroom, or instructional strategy, but is a result of the milieu created by all of these factors. (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to student attitudes. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of the good and bad aspects of Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Issues and problems addressed by the comments/observations focus on: (1) use(s) of the term "attitudes," differentiating between attitudes to science, interest in science, and scientific habits; (2) students' attitudes toward and interest in science, considering male/female, ethnic, and age-related differences; (3) development of positive attitudes and interests, indicating that two important factors in this development are providing successful experiences for students and teacher enthusiasm/interests; and (4) the relationship between development of scientific habits and teachers' interests in and attitudes toward science. Major points are highlighted in a final summary section. (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to process skills/habits. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of the good and bad aspects of Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations are presented in four sections: (1) views about the teaching of process skills/habits; (2) views about the acquisition of process skills/habits; (3) problems and difficulties of teaching process skills/habits; and (4) problems and difficulties students have in acquiring process skills/habits. Included are eight questions that should be considered in terms of direction for further study, covering such topics as the extent to which teachers are confused over the meaning of the term "process skills," and the identification/development of activities to enhance process habit/skill development. Also included (in an appendix) are discussions, accompanied by flow-charts, of activities/skills associated with three suggested problem-solving categories. (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to problems/difficulties with science topics (or aspects of science topics) of the Form 1-4 science syllabus. The intent of presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of good and bad aspects for Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations focus on topics in general, considering difficulties involving concepts, language/mathematics skills, time, and resources and/or conditions. Additional comments/observations related to difficulties in biology, physics (radiant energy, forces/force, motion/mass, electrical energy, astronomy), and chemistry (matter, mixtures), are presented in an appendix. Three questions are posed based on the comments/observations. Questions consider whether particular problem topics, aspects of topics which are a problem, or themes which occur over a number of topics should be identified and studied. (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to the classroom teacher. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of good and bad aspects for Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations focus on: teacher role in science instruction; knowledge, attributes, and sensitivities teachers need to teach science; pre-service teacher education; and support available for teachers so they can overcome problems and increase their effectiveness. Each of these areas is addressed in separate sections, followed by a discussion of two central issues, both of which could be alleviated without great manpower or financial input. The first concerns effective use of human resources/expertise; the second concerns whether or not enough attention is given to finding possible ways of encouraging professional development through sharing of teaching experiences. (JN)

The first (exploratory) phase of the Learning in Science Project focused on science teaching/learning in the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14) and sought to identify problems and difficulties in several areas. Provided in this paper are comments obtained during structured/unstructured interviews (from students, ex-students, teachers, headmasters, science advisers, and inspectors) and observations made by project staff related to science experiments. The intent in presenting these comments/observations is not primarily to provide a balanced view of the good and bad aspects of Form 1 to 4 science, but rather to open up problem issues as project staff and others see them. Comments/observations are presented in three sections: (1) introduction; (2) experimental work and the learning of facts, concepts, and principles; and (3) experimental work and the teaching of process skills (including such scientific attitudes as open-mindedness). Included are questions raised by the comments/observations presented, focusing on how frequently children really appreciate the problem being experimentally investigated, purpose of experimental work seen by teachers/students, and other areas. Also included and discussed are two measures which may alleviate some of the identified problems. (Extracts from observer's notes/transcripts are provided in a short appendix). (JN)

The aim of the Learning in Science Project is to: (1) investigate science teaching/learning at the Form 1 to 4 level (ages 10 to 14); (2) identify some of the key difficulties in this subject area; and (3) find ways of overcoming such difficulties. The project is seen both as an evaluative and a research project in that it is concerned with obtaining information for decision-making (evaluation) and is also concerned with attempting to identify those factors which influence learning. To this end three phases of evaluation/research are envisioned: exploratory (observing teaching/learning and identifying difficulties perceived by teachers, students, and trained observers); in-depth (examining teaching/learning of science topics/themes; emphasizing development of concepts, skills, and attitudes relevant to the topics/themes); and action-research (exploring possible ways of overcoming identified difficulties and problems). The types of investigations to be carried out during each of these phases, intended audience, how project outcomes will affect teaching, ethical considerations, and time constraints are discussed. The nature of the science curriculum is also discussed under four headings: official curriculum; teachers' curriculum (teachers' intentions); actual curriculum (teachers' actions); and students' curriculum (variety of experiences/influences on students themselves). (JN)

An investigation was made to determine whether family environmental factors influence the educational performance of New Zealand children to an extent similar to that found in other countries. School records of all 1970 third-form entrants at two schools in the greater Wellington area were examined, and a questionnaire was administered to all pupils from forms 4, 5, and 6 within the same schools. Results indicated that, as they are in other advanced industrial countries, educational aspirations of secondary school pupils were closely associated with social class. Neither the school system nor the school social climate appeared capable of overcoming this condition. Differences in the achievement of children from different social groups were even more significant than their differences in aspirations. Almost three times more children from homes where parents held professional positions gained three or more School Certificate passes, as compared with children from homes where parents were employed in manual labor. This disparity was not due to a proportionate difference in educational aspirations. Although most of the home background variables investigated were to some degree related to educational performance, few were constant in this relationship. Only parental education and family literacy were found to be independent of social class influences; these factors appeared to have the same effect on pupils' educational performance, regardless of the parents' work situations. (RH)

This paper and the four commissioned works on which it is based are guided by the important question: How can we start valuing practices and outcomes of teaching and learning that are difficult to reduce to numbers? As the process of developing indicators for the Post-2015 education targets unfolds, some of the targets are at risk of being dropped on account of being 'un-measurable.' However, excluding more holistic but harder to assess educational targets will inevitably remove vital focus from some of the most important aspects of high quality education provision. Three education targets, developed by the Education for All Steering Committee (EFA-SC) and the Open Working Group on Sustainable Development of the U.N. General Assembly (OWG), are the thematic foci of this paper: (1) Relevant Learning Outcomes; (2) Knowledge, Values, Skills, and Attitudes to Establish Sustainable and Peaceful Societies; and (3) Teachers and Safe, Inclusive, and Effective Learning Environments. These three targets are at risk of being excluded from the final formulation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in response to practical concerns about the number of targets being excessive as well as concerns that targets such as these "rely too much on vague, qualitative language rather than hard, measurable, time-bound, quantitative targets." This report also highlights some of the main ideas put forward by the authors of the four commissioned papers. The annex to this document briefly describes the commissioned papers and presents the indicators proposed by the authors. [For the commissioned papers, see "Capturing Quality, Equity & Sustainability: An Actionable Vision with Powerful Indicators for a Broad and Bold Education Agenda Post-2015" (ED610009), "Goals and Indicators for Education and Development: Consolidating the Architectures" (ED609905), "Indicators for a Broad and Bold Post-2015 Agenda: A Comprehensive Approach to Educational Development" (ED609982), and "Indicators for All? Monitoring Quality and Equity for a Broad and Bold Post-2015 Global Education Agenda" (ED609988).]

The purpose of this paper is to review recent developments related to the development of indicators of educational progress in the context of the Post 2015 deliberations to generate a new international architecture for educational investment through to 2030. There have been a plethora of suggestions and several parallel consultation processes since 2012 to revise and replace the goals for education and development agreed at the World Education Forum in Dakar (UNESCO, 2000) and enshrined in the Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000). This process is now converging on the two frameworks that are the subject of this analysis. Specifically, there are now seven goals that the Education for All Steering Committee has developed which were consolidated in the May 2014 Muscat Agreement (UNESCO, 2014); and the ten goals produced by the Open Working Group on Sustainable Development of the U.N. General Assembly (UN General Assembly, 2014). These goal statements overlap and are largely consistent with each other but contain some significant differences. This paper reconciles the differences and develops sets of possible indicators building on the work of the Indicators Technical Advisory Group (TAG-EFA, 2014) and the UN Statistical Commission (UNSC, 2014). The paper is organized in six parts. Part 1 analyses the strengths and weaknesses of the existing goals and targets for education and development to frame subsequent discussion in the context of the evolution of Education for All since 1990. Part 2 offers a necessary clarification of the relationship between goals and objectives, and targets and indicators. Part 3 reviews and discusses the process of developing indicators that are fit for purpose. Part 4 highlights characteristics of different types of indicator. Part 5 develops a list of preferred goal statements from the Muscat Agreement and OWG goals, links these to a discussion of existing and proposed indicators, and consolidates promising indicators that could be used to assess progress. The last part of the paper collects together forward looking conclusions that profile key issues that will shape how new indicators are devised to monitor the sustainable development goals for education.