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Straipsnyje nagrinėjami anglų kalbos diskurso žymikliai kind of ir sort of ir jų lietuviški atitikmenys. Šie anglų kalbos žymikliai pastaraisiais dešimtmečiais sulaukė nemažai tyrėjų dėmesio, tačiau kontrastyviniu aspektu jie beveik netirti: lygintos tik anglų ir čekų kalbos (Janebovà, Martinkovà 2017), o jų atitikmenys lietuvių kalboje visai nenagrinėti. Tyrimas remiasi tekstynų inspiruota kiekybine ir kokybine metodologija – empirinė medžiaga yra paimta iš dvikrypčio lygiagrečiojo tekstyno ParaCorpEN→LT→EN, sudaryto iš grožinės literatūros tekstų ir jų vertimų. Straipsnio tikslas – aprašyti šių žymiklių vartosenos kiekybinius ir kokybinius parametrus, nustatyti jų vertimo atitikmenų bei funkcijų (tekstinių ir tarpasmeninių) koreliaciją lietuvių kalboje.Gauti rezultatai rodo, kad kind of ir sort of dažniausiai vartojami daiktavardinėse konstrukcijose, tačiau, be pirminės propozicinės reikšmės žymėti rūšį ir tipą, šiose konstrukcijose jie dažnai funkcionuoja kaip diskurso žymikliai. Rečiau vartojami nedaiktavardinėse konstrukcijose, tačiau tada jie visada funkcionuoja tik kaip diskurso žymikliai. Atlikta šių anglų kalbos žymiklių kokybinė-funkcinė analizė parodė, kad jie yra įvairialypiai: gali atlikti ir diskurso struktūravimo (tekstines), ir tarpasmenines funkcijas. Didelė kind of ir sort of atitikmenų įvairovė vertimuose ir originaliuose tekstuose parodo, kad lietuvių kalboje nėra tiesioginių šių žymiklių ekvivalentų ir diskurso funkcijoms žymėti pasirenkamos kitos raiškos priemonės. Labai retai propoziciškai pavartoti kind of ir sort of verčiami tiesioginiais atitikmenimis (rūšis, kategorija, tipas); dažniausi atitikmenys lietuvių kalboje yra nurodomieji įvardžiai tie / šie ir toks / šitoks. Kai kind of ir sort of vartojami kaip diskurso žymikliai, dažniausi jų atitikmenys lietuvių kalboje (ir verstiniuose, ir originaliuose tekstuose) buvo nežymimieji įvardžiai kažkas / kažkoks, kažin koks / kokia ir dalelytės tartum / tarsi / lyg (ir), rodantys kalbėtojo abejonę, švelninantys propoziciją ir vartojami mandagumo sumetimais, siekiant išsaugoti kalbėtojo ir pašnekovo veidą (angl. face saving) ar nurodant į bendrąsias žinias. Reikia pažymėti, kad nemažai atvejų sudarė nulinė atitiktis. Tai rodo menką leksinį kalbamų junginių svorį, kai perteikti jų reikšmę vertimo kalboje nebūtina, multifunkcionalumą ir vartosenos priklausomybę nuo konteksto. The present paper reports on the English type nouns kind of and sort of and their Lithuanian correspondences in a contrastive perspective. This paper aims to describe the quantitative and qualitative distribution of the English kind of andsort of, to determine their translational correspondences in Lithuanian as well as to reveal how Lithuanian correspondences correlate with the functions (textual and interpersonal) that kind of and sort of perform in original and translated fiction texts. The research method is a quantitative and qualitative contrastive analysis based on data extracted from the self-compiled bidirectional corpus ParaCorpEN→LT→EN comprising fiction texts. The results show that kind of and sort of are prone to be used NP-internally; however, even in this construction they can feature as DMs. Kind of and sort of function as unambiguous DMs when they completely lose their nominality, i.e. are used NP-externally. The functional and semantic potential of the type nouns is fully reflected by their TCs. Very rarelykind of and sort of denoting a type are translated congruently into a Lithuanian type noun; they usually correspond to demonstrative pronouns. As discourse markers, kind of and sort of are realised by different Lithuanian correspondences which may help establish the common ground between the speaker and the hearer or refer to the previous context, may indicate epistemic imprecision, approximation or downtone a proposition. The high number of zero correspondence shows that the Lithuanian type nouns have not advanced on the grammaticalization path the way the English type nouns have and due to the multifunctionalilty, non-propositionality and context-dependence there is no one-to-one correspondence of the markers under scrutiny.

Expression of time is an important field in linguistic research. In Lithuanian linguistics, the study of time has focused first and foremost on tense and aspect systems. Therefore, Lithuanian language has developed a big diversity of means to encode time, e.g. noun cases ( vasarą ‘in summer’) and noun phrases ( liepos vakarą ‘in July evening’), prepositional phrases ( po darbo ‘after work’), adverbs ( netrukus ‘soon’), subordinate clauses ( kai nustos lyti ‘when it stops raining’). All of them despite their different grammatical status are suggested to be called temporal adverbials. ‘Adverbial’ is a quite new notion in Lithuanian linguistics, it was first presented in the studies of stance adverbials but is also convenient in the field of linguistic expression of time. The purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the necessity of distinguishing a semantic-functional class of temporal adverbials in Lithuanian linguistics and to show their position in the system of means that encode time. The second part of the paper presents a few semantic models of the temporal adverbials made by foreign linguists and the semantic research of Lithuanian temporal means that should be regarded as temporal adverbials. Keywords: linguistic expression of time; temporal adverbial; adverb; tense; aspect; lexical aspect; deixis of time DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/Lietkalb.2016.10.9923

This paper focuses on Lithuanian L2 verb forms that do not exist in the target language. The data is drawn from the Lithuanian L2 corpus and includes spontaneous speech data by 17 speakers of different L1s and all three acquisition varieties (pre-basic, basic and post-basic). The non-existent verb forms make only a small part of the overall verb forms used, however, when distinguished from occasional mistakes, the forms that indicate grammatical development that are analysed show notable systematicity among different speakers. Five distinct and most frequent formants are analyzed in detail, namely -u, -a, -o, -(i)au, ė, that are used by several speakers with seemingly similar function. The analysis reveals specific functions and discusses different factors that have an effect on the acquisition of these formants. In many cases frequency is an important factor, however, with formants -u and -ė transparency and regularity seem to have a stronger effect and thus facilitate the acquisition. Formant -a, being nearly the most common and extremely multifunctional (i.e. rather unmarked), is incorporated into the system firstly as part of the base form and holds this position till a very advanced stage of Lithuanian L2 acquisition. Verb stem type also has an effect with the regularly suffixed verbs being acquired the easiest, while the mixed type and the primary ones cause many difficulties for the speakers. Overall, the systematicity discovered shows the creative structuring of the interlanguage that only occurs more actively in the post-basic variety of acquisition.

DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH-LATVIAN STATISTICAL MACHINE TRANSLATION SYSTEM: METHODS, RESOURCES AND FIRST RESULTSSummaryThis paper presents research and development of English-Latvian Statistical Machine Translation (SMT) prototypes for legal domain. Several methods have been investigated, i.e., phrase-based models and factored models. Translation quality has been evaluated using automated metrics (BLEU score) and human evaluation. In automatic evaluation the best score (46.44 BLEU points) was assigned to factored model trained on JRC Ac­quis corpus (version 3.0) which was also evaluated as the best from the human viewpoint. In addition, error analysis of SMT output was performed. This analysis showed that al­though the output of the best prototype demonstrated a reasonable quality, it had several frequent common errors, i.e., incorrect form, missing words and wrong word order. For the future, work on tree-based SMT and hybrid systems is proposed.

Straipsnyje nagrinėjama lietuvių kalbos adverbialų „gal“ ir „galbūt“ kiekybinė ir kokybinė distribucija skirtinguose diskurso tipuose (šnekamoji kalba, grožinė literatūra, akademinė kalba). Tyrimo tikslas yra aptarti lietuvių kalbos adverbialų „gal“ ir „galbūt“ ir jų atitikmenų anglų kalboje multifunkcionalumo aspektus. Straipsnyje pateikiama kiekybinė ir kokybinė šių adverbialų analizė. Šių lietuvių kalbos adverbialų vartosena dar iki šiol nebuvo aptarta pasitelkiant įvairių tekstynų teikiamomis galimybėmis. Tyrimas remiasi tekstynų inspiruota metodologija – empirinė medžiaga yra paimta iš dvikrypčio lygiagrečiojo tekstyno ParaCorpEN→LT→EN, Lietuvių mokslo kalbos tekstyno CorALit ir iš Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstyno. Kiekybinė analizė atskleidžia, kad gal dominuoja visuose diskurso tipuose. Šis adverbialas vartojamas dvigubai dažniau nei galbūt. Tirti adverbialai gana dažnai figūruoja grožinės literatūros tekstuose, tačiau prototipinė jų vartosena yra būdinga šnekamajai kalbai. Tuo tarpu akademiniuose tekstuose gal ir galbūt nėra dažni ir vartojami panašiai: jų vartosenos dažnis beveik sutampa. Tai galėtų rodyti, kad mokslinių tekstų autoriai pasitelkia kitas lingvistines priemones savo kaip autorių požiūriui reikšti, yra linkę prisiimti atsakomybę už savo teiginių teisingumą ir retai jais abejoja. Atlikta šių adverbialų kokybinė ir kiekybinė analizė parodė, kad jie yra įvairialypiai ir gali atlikti keletą funkcijų. Prototipiškai jie kvalifikuoja propoziciją episteminiu aspektu, tačiau be šios funkcijos gali atlikti ir keletą kitų: aproksimatoriaus, sąšvelnio, klausiamosios dalelytės ir nefaktiškumo žymiklių episteminuose sąrašuose (angl. epistemic lists). Akivaizdu, kad gal yra funkciškai lankstesnis nei galbūt: pastarasis adverbialas nebuvo vartojamas kaip klausiamoji dalelytė. Tačiau svarbu pažymėti, kad abu adverbialai be savo prototipinės episteminės reikšmės įvairiuose diskursuose įgyja ir kitų, su autoriaus požiūriu nesiejamų, funkcijų ir yra linkę pragmatiškėti. The present paper deals with the multifunctionality of Lithuanian modal adverbials. The аim of the analysis is to show that the Lithuanian modal adverbials "gal" "perhaps" and "galbūt" "maybe" and their English correspondences are multifunctional and to retrieve their meaning variants. This contrastive corpus-based study makes use of quantitative and qualitative methods of research. The results show that the adverbials under study exhibit a variety of functions: though mostly they qualify the proposition in terms of the degree of likelihood, i. e. epistemic modality, they can also acquire several other functions in addition to qualifying the proposition. Though the adverbial "gal" "perhaps" is more functionally versatile than "galbūt" "maybe", it is clear that both adverbials have developed post-modal uses. The markers exhibit a diversity of functional variants in different types of discourse: they can act as mitigating devices reducing the illocutionary effect of an imperative or making a suggestion or offer more polite; as interrogative particles; or as approximators estimating a figure, number or quantity; or playing a part of non-factual markers in epistemic lists.

The paper presents the results of the pilot study on the multifunctionality of the Lithuanian mental verbs manyti ‘think’, žinoti ‘know’ and suprasti ‘understand’. The study focuses on the first person singular present tense forms and imperative forms of the verbs and analyses their tendencies to function as markers of epistemicity or pragmatic markers in fiction. The data for the analysis have been taken from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language (http://tekstynas.vdu.lt), namely the subcorpus of fiction. The analysis of the data reveals that out of the three Lithuanian mental verbs under consideration, the first person singular present tense form manau ‘I think’ is most frequently used as a marker of epistemicity. It expresses author’s judgement on the truth value of the proposition or source of information. It should be noted that individual imperative forms of the mental verbs have not fully lost their primary lexical meaning, yet they have been frequently found to function as pragmatic markers. The imperative forms of the verbs are used to establish and maintain a relationship with the interlocutor, introduce the opposite point of view, summarize the facts that were previously mentioned, boost or hedge the proposition. They exhibit such features as syntactic mobility, absence of the propositional meaning, and rise of pragmatic functions in discourse. Consequently, the forms under analysis may be comparable to sentence adverbs which modify the proposition rather than constitute a part of it. Keywords: multifunctionality; mental verbs; epistemicity; pragmatic markers

The paper introduces the results of the synchronic analysis of the productivity of noun paradigms. On the basis of the theory of Natural Morphology, to identify productive paradigms, two criteria have been selected: a) the variation of inflectional paradigms and b) the morphological integration of new loanwords. The variation of inflectional paradigms is treated as confusing inflections of different paradigms. The new morphologically integrated loanwords refer to words of foreign origin of the last decade which have been used with Lithuanian inflections. Both criteria of paradigm productivity have been analysed on the basis of the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian compiled in 2006-2008 (http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/~andrius/SKT5/5SKT-paiesk.php); it provides an opportunity to investigate samples of natural spontaneous language. The analysis of the morphological integration of loanwords has proved the initial hypothesis that new loanwords adopt natural inflections, i.e. inflections of productive paradigms. The investigation of the variation of inflectional paradigms has shown that the words undergo paradigm changes from unproductive to productive inflectional paradigms. The investigation has revealed that masculine paradigms are more productive in contemporary Lithuanian than feminine paradigms. The inflections of masculine paradigms are usually attached to new loanwords and replace the inflections of less productive paradigms. The 1st male paradigm ( -as ) seems to be the most productive. The 3rd male paradigm ( -is , -ys ) has turned out to be less productive. Rather stable but unproductive is the 6th female paradigm ( -a ); it has few loanwords; the nouns of this paradigm are not used with the inflections of other paradigms. Other paradigms of the noun could be treated either as stable (8th paradigm ( -ė )) or unproductive (4th ( -us ), 11th (-, -iui ) and 12th (-, -iai ); 9th ( -is , -iai ) and 10th ( -is , -iui ) paradigms).

Traditional dictionaries provide lexicographic data of the same type in different ways; such unrestricted freedom might result in imprecise information. Some such cases are explained by an attempt to compile traditional dictionaries so that they are handy for their users. The paper discusses several non-systemic cases of providing forms of lexicographic items, their meanings and shades of meaning, derivatives, proper and common lexis. The data has been drawn from more than ten dictionaries of several languages. The structure of the electronic database requires utmost precision; therefore, any non-systemic items are not justified. Due to the above reasons, a lexeme, or a lexicographic unit in one of its meanings, has been chosen as the key structural unit of the Database of Contemporary Lithuanian Lexicon (DCLL, Dabartinės lietuvių leksikos duomenų bazė). To produce a most precise card of a lexeme is much more rational and simpler than that of the whole lexicographic unit. In the process, a number of analogous cases and other cases of non-systemic description of data should be taken into account. Moreover, it is hardly possible to consider them all. Thus an attempt will be made to finally produce the DCLL as a card index of lexemes rather than lexicographic units (their entries). Dictionary entries are to be produced by joining the lexemes automatically.

The paper introduces the results of an investigation into spoken Lithuanian based on the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian and carried out in Vytautas Magnus University. In the course of investigation the interrogative utterances used in spontaneous language were classified according to function and structure. The quantitative analysis of the data accessed from the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian was based on a special computer program CHILDES. The results have shown that spoken Lithuanian gives preference to closed interrogative utterances rather than open interrogative utterances. Closed interrogative utterances in most cases use no interrogative particles; utterances with interrogative particles are much less frequent. In the latter subgroup interrogative particles mostly occur in the utterance-initial (e.g. ar, gal etc.) rather than utterance-final position (e.g. taip, ne, ane etc.). In the class of open interrogative utterances adverbial modifier utterances prevail; in the latter subclass interrogative utterances of the adverbial modifier of place dominate.