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Evaluating the variations in terrestrial water storage anomalies (TWSA) associated with climate forcing and human activities in the Mongolian Plateau is crucial for assessing water scarcity and predicting potential pressures on water resources in the future. In this study, we assessed the impacts of climatic and anthropogenic drivers on the change in TWSA on the Mongolian Plateau by using the Independent Component Analysis (ICA) to examine Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) based TWSA data and comparing the ICA modes with hydrometeorological data and statistical data related to human activities. The results showed that TWSA in the Mongolian Plateau has experienced significant depletion (−2.3 ± 0.62 mm/year) from 2002 to 2017, with a severe decline (−3.4 ± 0.78 mm/year) in Inner Mongolia, China, and a moderate depletion rate in Mongolia (1.44 ± 0.56 mm/year). The results of the statistical analysis indicated that climate change was the dominant driver for the decline in TWSA from 2002 to 2007, resulting in a decrease in TWSA in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia at rates of −5.17 ± 1.13 mm/year and −5.01 ± 2.0 mm/year, respectively. From 2008 to 2017, the intensity of human activities has increased in Mongolia, but climate-driven effects greatly offset the anthropogenic changes, leading to an increasing trend in TWSA in Mongolia during this period. Nevertheless, in Inner Mongolia, the anthropogenic water depletion, such as irrigation, coal mining, and grazing, outweighed the climate contributions on the variations in TWSA, causing the TWSA in Inner Mongolia to decline at a rate of 1.08 ± 0.54 mm/year during 2007–2011. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantitative assessment of the terrestrial water storage (TWS) changes and the major driving factors have been hindered by the lack of direct observations in Inner Mongolia, China. In this study, the spatial and temporal changes of TWS and groundwater storage (GWS) in Inner Mongolia during 2003–2021 were evaluated using the satellite gravity data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and the GRACE Follow On combined with data from land surface models. The results indicated that Inner Mongolia has experienced a widespread TWS loss of approximately 1.82 mm/yr from 2003–2021, with a more severe depletion rate of 4.15 mm/yr for GWS. Meteorological factors were the driving factors for water storage changes in northeastern and western regions. The abundant precipitation increased TWS in northeast regions at 2.36 mm/yr. Anthropogenic activities (agricultural irrigation and coal mining) were the driving factors for water resource decline in the middle and eastern regions (especially in the agropastoral transitional zone), where the decrease rates were 4.09 mm/yr and 3.69 mm/yr, respectively. In addition, the severities of hydrological drought events were identified based on water storage deficits, with average severity values of 17 mm, 18 mm, 24 mm, and 33 mm for the west, middle, east, and northeast regions, respectively. This study established a basic framework for water resource changes in Inner Mongolia and provided a scientific foundation for further water resources investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A dynamic two-stage SBM model with non-discretionary variables is proposed. • China's CPLR efficiency under four scenarios of extreme temperatures is measured. • The influences of extreme temperatures on the CPLR efficiency are highlighted. • A comparative analysis of CPLR efficiency under four scenarios is provided. With the influence of climate changes resulting in more extremely days, we might expect to face a rise in associated coal productivity losses and land destruction. Numerous studies have focused on measuring the efficiency of coal production system. Yet scant studies have considered their internal structure, reconstructed lands, and especially the impact of extreme temperatures. Then, this paper divided such a system into stages of coal production (CP) and land reconstruction (LR), named the CPLR system. This study proposes a modified two-stage dynamic slacks-based measure model with non-discretionary variables for measuring the CPLR efficiency under four scenarios of extreme temperatures. The results are as follows. (1) The CPLR system for 24 provinces under four scenarios spanning 2012 to 2017 had relatively low efficiency except for Fujian, Inner Mongolia and Sichuan, which is mainly caused by the bad performance of the LR system. (2) Extreme temperatures must be considered in measuring CPLR efficiency and its stage efficiency, or otherwise the underestimation of CPLR efficiency and CP efficiency will become in 18 provinces. The negative impacts of extreme temperatures on the efficiency of reconstructed lands and raw coal production should be noticed, especially for Anhui. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]