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Cultural traits from China have been slowly entering Europe for more than two thousand years. Some of these, such as gunpowder, the compass and paper have been of outstanding importance while others have created but passing fads. It is impossible to identify all of the influences of Chinese origin which have entered European culture during this long period. Even in the case of clearly recognized Chinese traits the records are inadequate as to many of the details of their westward journey. Despite the incompleteness of our knowledge, a brief survey of the existing in formation throws light on some aspects of European cultural history and on some of the mechanisms of diffusion. There were four main periods of contact between China and the West. The first was the era of silk trade with Rome and the ancient Mediterranean world which lasted from the first century B.C. to the middle of the sixth century A.D. The rise of the Arab Empire in the seventh century began a long period of relations between China and the Near East in which the Moslem world acted partially as a barrier but also as an intermediary between China and Europe. The Mongol Empire of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries made possible brief direct contacts of Europe with China. Modem relations of China and the West began with the Age of Discoveries in the sixteenth century.

Starting with the concept of "middleman minorities" developed by Blalock (1967 79-84), encompassing such groups as the Chinese in Southeast Asia, Jews in Europe, and Indians in East Africa, this paper presents a model which tries to explain the development and persistence of the form. A key variable is the orientation of immigrants towards their place of residence, with sojourning at first, and later a "stranger" orientation affecting the solidarity and economic activity of the ethnic grout. These in turn arouse the hostility of the host society, which perpetuates a reluctance to assimilate completely, or "stranger" status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the course of European industrialization ideologies of management have become concerned increasingly with the attitudes of workers. The managerial appeals of Anglo-American and of Russian civilization have differed, however, in terms of whether or not they presuppose the possibility of self-reliance and good faith. The study of such ideologies provides a clue to the changing class relations of industrial societies and, therefore, suggests that the analysis of cultural data is an important dimension of sociological research. To illustrate this point the paper shows how the basic difference between the managerial ideologies in England and Russia may be related to structural differences in bureaucratization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the political sociology in Eastern Europe. The term sociology is a newcomer in the official nomenclature of social sciences in most East European countries. Sociology had been left out from the program of social studies, it was not because of any real scientific reasons, but because its name was objected, the present renaissance of sociology in these countries is related to the political changes which have taken place during the last decade; in fact, it is evidence of new political tendencies. Hence the importance of following the changing approach to political phenomena in the theoretical sociological publications in socialist countries. The period between 1957 and 1963, covered by the appended bibliography and referred to in the present paper, provides ample material on the subject. In this sense, the place of political sociology among sociological disciplines is essentially different from that of other branches of detailed sociology. The latter are concerned with some isolated fields of social life, while political sociology investigates social phenomena from the angle of their political aspect, the aspect of power. Hence, if there is any justification for regarding political sociology as a separate discipline, it is on the grounds of the difference in theoretical approach rather than the difference in the subject of study.

This paper discusses the new economic and social tendencies of the European civilization. Individual freedom and political rights and national sovereignty and independence have been governing the ideals of the modern world. While they have been conquering public opinion and being given conscious political sanctions, a new set of social and economic conditions have been coming into existence. The age of nationalism has been marked by the growing internationalization of social and economic life. At the time of the French Revolution, each European people was distinct in its culture, its customs, its ways of thought, event its costumes. The victory of political liberalism and the acquisition of individual liberties appear to have been accompanied by an increasing loss of individual independence and initiative in the ordinary business of life. This also is the result of economic causes. It has come about that the center of social gravity has shifted from the political to the economic field. People still preserve the old political forms, but it is the economic issues that control their lives. The true feature of the new society, according to professional historian M. Lucien Romier, is not the class struggle but the growth of great economic interests which transcend the boundaries of nation and class.

This paper discusses the existence of an open-field type of cultivation in Mediterranean lands and in the Atlantic Coastal lands of south west Europe. In certain islands of Brittany, France traces of an open-field type of cultivation still exist. Exposure to the westerly winds retards, and in many cases entirely prevents, the growth of trees, but in sheltered spots they may be found, as well as such sun-loving plants as mimosa, myrtle and vine. The islanders are occupied with fishing and farming. In the Balearic Islands also, the Minorcans are fishermen, while the Mallorcans have been enterprising navigators from earliest times. In all these islands the sillon is the basis of land tenure, and many sillons are cultivated in common. Communal methods of working were also characteristic of other occupations in the islands. The fertility of the soil is maintained by the application of manure in the form of seaweed, and there are very strict regulations concerning the cutting of this plant. In Ile d' Arz, France, with a two-field scheme, the ancient jachère morte has been replaced by the Jachère verte or green fallow. Barley and wheat, both varying in their species as much as the soil varied in its composition, were the cereals most usually grown. The mountains in Greece have limited the extent of the fertile land, and the dry climate has limited its green pastures.

In a paper which the author had the honour of writing for the "Sociological review," the author attempted to describe the regional and vocational influences that produced the ancient architecture of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome and medieval Europe-the place, work and folk, and the resultant habitations. The river and the clay buildings of Mesopotamia, the river and the clay transmuted into granite for the buildings of Egypt, the mountain stone and marble buildings of Greece and Rome and the forest and timber buildings, afterwards translated into stone of Northern Europe. In all countries throughout the ages, the great building people have always been the agriculturalists, the peasants. Their settled place of abode-the regular routine of their seasonal duties gave a permanence to their works that the other vocations missed. If the sailor has not the high spiritual imagination of the shepherd, he has many other valuable qualities, and an imaginative range that even exceeds the shepherd's. His vocation brings him into contact with foreign countries and men of all nations; he is a trained observer and has ample time during his long voyages to meditate and digest what he has seen.

The article presents information on various papers related to migration in Europe, published in different journals. One of the papers titled "Cart Before the Horse," presents differences between the present British Government and the Select Committee on Immigration and Race Relations on the Control of Commonwealth immigration. Another paper "Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in France," suggests that besides the race determinant, other factors such as the history of colonization, length of stay, educational level and industrial experience before migration, all seem equally important in accounting for the relative positions of the different immigrant groups in France. The paper titled "Migration of Population in East-Central Europe, 1939-1955," reports that despite initial difficulties, the process of integration is very much advanced. In spite of early fears and prophecies, in the long run the fabric of this part of Europe has not been weakened by great migrations but rather brought to greater stability. The paper deals with movements based on political decisions often independent of the interests and desires of the groups involved. Thus it was a forced political migration, although in many cases compulsion was indirect.

A selective systematic overview is provided of the literature on the utilization of health and welfare services that appeared in the United States and Europe, mainly within the last two decades. Methodological questions that appear to characterize much of the work to date, are discussed and analytically distinct approaches or research strategies in the study of utilization behavior are presented. The paper traces the emergence of work in this area, questions the wisdom of investigators proceeding along traditional research lines, and highlights a number of promising new possibilities for research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents abstracts of various papers related to immigration in Europe that were published in several periodicals. One of the papers discussed is "Planned Indian Immigration: The Role of the High Commissions," by B.A. Chansarkar. This paper offers a critique of some of the existing arrangements for the movement of voucher holders out of India and into Great Britain and makes a number of specific proposals as to how these might be improved, particularly under the aegis of the particular High Commissions concerned. Another paper discussed is "A Shipboard Study of Some British Born Immigrants Returning to the United Kingdom From Australia," by Alan Richardson. The aim of this study is to explore some of the psycho-social determinants of return migration among British born married, male, skilled, manual workers and to compare those who intend to resettle permanently in Great Britain with those who were undecided about resettling there. A tentative conclusion suggested by the results is that permanent' returnees are more likely to be motivated by economic considerations. The undecided returnees, on the other hand, are more likely to be motivated by emotional considerations.

The article focuses on the book "Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives," by Talcott Parsons. Readers who may hope that this will provide them with a simplified approach to the work of Parsons will be disappointed; his style is as turgid as ever, making this a doubtful member of a series of books for beginners. Nevertheless it is a shorter route to Parsonian ideas than most, and is much more rooted in empirical data than his other books. The societies under examination do not include those of modern Europe, which will be dealt with in a later volume.

The purpose of this paper is to explore some of the features of the history of sociology and to indicate the lines upon which enquiries may be pursued, to see to what extent the development of sociology is itself a historical phenomenon of a unique kind and to locate its origins. The history of sociology may well be perceived to fall into two parts,an early period of mainly speculative activity and a later period of empirical, albeit limited studies. Throughout its history we can detect periods particularly favourable to the development of the subject, but whilst the conflicts of a process of industrialisation in Europe, especially in recent times, may account for much of this development and, whilst these vicissitudes in Europe and elsewhere may have increased the swell of a new intellectual wave, sociology sailed on a tide which began to flow much earlier, and which is to be seen in the currents of eighteenth century philosophical thought, rather than in the plash of nineteenth and twentieth century economic and social turbulence.

This article examines the issues concerning the confrontations that occurred during the Sixth European Conference of the Peace Research Society in 1969, where a declaration directed against traditional peace research and against the organizers of that conference was signed by a majority of the researchers who attended the event. The cause of the critical statement was the publication of the papers presented at the Conference on Vietnam organized in 1968 in Cambridge, Massachusetts by the Peace Research Society. Peace research, like most other research activities, is a response to felt needs for the maximization of certain values--the particular contribution of research is to obtain better knowledge to be used in the realization of those values. The radical peace researchers in 1968-1969 challenged the traditional and established peace research. Traditional peace research was challenged for serious shortcomings in the ability to explore significant problems, for its contribution to mystification by exploring the irrelevant or unimportant, for using unacceptable and narrow conceptions of peace and inadequate and distorted concepts of conflict. Furthermore, it was claimed that these conceptions were due to ideological fixations, that thereby the peace researchers were aiding the established power-elites of the world in their continued dominance of respective spheres of influence.

The article presents information on various research papers from Europe published in an earlier issue of the journal "International Migration Review". "Family Planning Among Different Ethnic Groups," by R.E.D. Simpson. In this extract, from his much longer report "A Medico-Social Study of a Group Practice with a High Proportion of Immigrants," the author describes the increasing use made of family planning in his practice in Bristol, England. "France's Portuguese Workers," by Marie-Claire Viguer is based on Statistics from the Ministry of Social Affairs and the National Immigration Office and on results of investigations made at Toulouse at the Sociology of Labor Center by French and Portuguese research workers.

C/sing cross-sectional comparative data, a number of investigators report inverse correlations between mother tongue diversity and various measures of national development Longitudinal analyses of mother tongue diversity in eight different nation over relatively long periods of time, along with a shorter longitudinal analysis of all European nations, indicate that such correlations are probably void of any causal implications. An analysis of covariance explains why cross-sectional correlations occur between variables that are not dynamically related. In addition to suggesting the need for an alternative perspective on me course of mother tongue diversity, the results have critical implications for some of the most common procedures used In the comparative study of nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses Max Horkheimer and Herbert Marcuse's interpretation of critical theory and its aims. The author analyzes the basic intention of Horkheimer and Marcuse which was to assist the transition from capitalism to socialism in some of the European nations by unmasking the inhibition of the revolutionary potential of the masses through the manifold devices of culture. The author also explains the critical theory that in Horkheimer's view corresponds to the social situation wherein the fate of socialist revolution was predetermined in those lands which had never experienced a liberalist phase at all.

Within the context of European (including American) civilization, the focus of religious concern has been on gaining freedom from the state. The doctrine of the separation of religion and government seems contrary to Islam. Islam is a civilization in the sense that it not only moralizes but also legislates. However, within the Indonesian context, religious pluralism has produced not an islamic state nor the separation of church and state but the belief that the state should support all religions. The research here is an empirical test of this analysis and involves the study of 1,437 students at five Southeast Asian universities who responded to a self-administered questionnaire distributed 1969 and 1970. As expected, Muslims favor cooperation between "church" and state. But the data do not support the conclusion that there is a unified Catholic position; at present a lack of agreement and ambivalence characterize Catholics in the sample. Among Protestants, the indonesians overwhelmingly accept cooperation between church and state, while other Protestants are less enthusiastic. The overall conclusion must be that the American idea of separation of church and state seems unlikely to become the dominant view in the region studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the concept of anti-Semitism. In dealing with more recent forms of anti-Semitism three further points have to be noted. These are the growth of nationalism, the emergence of new middle classes in Eastern and South-eastern Europe, as a result of increasing urbanization and industrialization and the growth of official and governmental bureaucracies and the deliberate use of anti-Semitism as a political weapon. For earlier periods, during which the nation-states were still in process of formation, a Jewish historian has put forward the hypothesis that there was a definite correlation between anti-Semitism and type of ethnic grouping. He tries to show that the position of the Jews has been most favorable in areas in which several ethnic groups were included, none being a dominant majority, least favorable in ethnically homogeneous states and varying between the two extremes in states which included only part of a nationality. Some recent theories of the causes of anti-Semitism fall broadly into two classes, those that appeal mainly to economic factors and those that rely chiefly on psychological explanations.

This article examines three sociological aspects of regional consciousness. The concept of the region is familiar enough to the sociologist, and to the geographer it has become a basic part of his equipment. It gains in interest for both, however, when regarded as the expression of a tendency in European thought which has appeared in three forms in the last half-century or so. They have been the rise of the political and social movement known as "regionalism," the development of the regional concept as a technique in geography, and the emergence of the "regional novel" as a marked feature of prose fiction. The three activities have been contemporaneous and have enough characteristics in common to justify the assumption that they bear some relation to each other. It is a secondary matter that the actual regions of the novelist, the geographer, and the regionalist are rarely the same: the important fact is that they are all signs of a developing consciousness of the smaller units of the earth. Paradoxically enough, as intercourse became easier during the 19th century mean became more and more aware of the diversities within each state. On these three tendencies the most uneven in its development has been the political movement, known since the 1890s as "regionalism," the reaction against a centralizing and standardizing process.

This article focuses on the migration of British citizens between Great Britain and Europe, from 1924 to 1934. In each year of the span, more British nationals arrived in Great Britain from Europe than embarked for Europe. When British nationals arrive from Europe it is impossible to distinguish between those who were initially in Europe and those who merely traveled via Europe from, say, India, Australia, or New Zealand. Similarly the passengers from Great Britain to Europe include a number who do not finish their journey in Europe, but go forward to countries outside Europe. In order to determine the true migration of nationals between Europe and Great Britain, it is therefore first necessary to find out how many nationals passed through Europe each year when traveling between Great Britain and countries outside Europe. In 1921 the number of British passengers embarking from Great Britain direct to non-European countries was 268,300. Of these, 199,500 were classed as migrants and so changed their permanent residence. The other 68,800 nationals were therefore not changing their permanent residence, but had simply been visitors. Thus, of the 77,900 nationals visiting Great Britain from non-European countries in 1921, only 68,000 sailed direct to non European countries.

The article examines the decline of birth rate and surplus of women in European countries. The first part of this investigation shows that a new method of calculation must be adopted in order to arrive at the true dimension of the surplus. When one separates the reproducing classes from the total population, the surplus of women turns out to be considerably higher than was hitherto supposed. Its origin can be traced back many decades and it can be shown that a surplus of women necessarily develops in a population which, over a period of time, has steadily increased its number of births. In the second part of this investigation the effects of such a surplus of women upon sociological conditions is considered. Their operation can be traced in many directions leading increasingly to a restriction of large families and ultimately even to a limitation of small families. The circumstances that determine the impulse to restriction in the size of the family have usually been regarded as largely economic in nature. They have been, on the one hand, attributed to the rising of the standard of living during recent decades with a resulting readjustment of the needs in regard to housing, education, luxury, etc.

The article focuses on the sociological aspects of the frontiers. In the beginning the article gives a brief description of natural history of the frontiers. Western civilization can show some unexpected evidence of the way cultural frontiers, once set, tend to resist change. The great distinctions of religion are eloquent in this respect. Take the case of Islam and Christianity, between which the frontiers have only undergone modification in such parts of Europe as were socially and politically backward, viz, the East. Again, the relative immobility of the line of cleavage set at the end of the Wars of Religion. The most obvious mark of cultural frontiers is the change from one language to another, which tends with the average man to count for more than it really should. At bottom the whole of western Europe rests on, and has never got away from, the single culture pattern of Latin Christianity as it stood throughout the Middle Ages. Throughout the article an area in question is treated as if it were a "colony," the question whether the strings of its economic, cultural, and political existence being held outside the area does not preclude the possibility of normal processes of social and cultural development altogether.

Focuses on the management of children with a potentially fatal disease in Europe. Percentage of children with fatal diseases; Role of parents in the care of fatally ill child; Details on the nature of tumor chemotherapy.

The influence of previous structure on the transformative capacities of modernizing societies is analyzed for China, Japan, India, and Islamic societies. The internal transformation of these great Asian societies has been greatly facilitated by autonomy of social, cultural and political institutions. Cultural autonomy has made possible the development of symbols supporting and legitimizing the new central institutions, while autonomy in the sphere of social organization has facilitated the crystallization of viable new organizational nuclei without disrupting the pre-existing order. The relatively strong internal cohesion of family groups and broader social strata, with some status autonomy and openness toward the center, has helped to develop willingness to provide the necessary support for the new centers. Where such autonomy is absent, and the social, cultural and political orders are closely identified with one another, development of viable modern structures has been greatly impeded. And where the family and other groups are closed, they are likely to undermine the new institutional centers by making excessive demands on them or by withholding resources. The relative importance of structural differentiation and cultural innovation in the transformation of European societies is also analyzed, through reexamination of Weber's thesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since World War II there has been a substantial revival of overseas migration from Europe. Much of this is related to war displacements of population. But the publicity attending the more dramatic refugee movements has obscured the resurgence of voluntary free migration, such as those that peopled North America, Australasia, and large parts of South America from Europe in the last two centuries. The passage of eight years since the close of the war offers an opportunity to view this revived mass migration with some perspective on its volume, direction, and pattern. How large was it? Where did it come from and where did it go? It is the purpose of this article to give summary answers to these questions and to make some comparisons of the postwar movements with the great overseas migrations of the past. Until recently there was no official or international survey of European migration data for the postwar period. The data are widely scattered in country statistics with greatly varying definitions, coverage, and degrees of accuracy. Migration statistics for Europe are far less complete than census and vital statistics. The summary that follows is drawn from special compilations laboriously made from numerous sources and presented much more fully in a longer publication.

The experience of two world wars, the revolutions in Soviet Union and Germany thirty years ago, the Civil War in China, the expansion of the Soviet sphere of influence into the very heart of Europe and the ensuing tensions between the partisans of capitalism, socialism and communism have aroused an intensified interest in the study of those forces and factors which have contributed to the present crisis of Western society. Among these are, of foremost importance, those patterns of concerted social action and more or less organized groups which are commonly referred to as social and political "movements." The conventional approach to the study of these phenomena has been a historical and philosophical study of the ideas or "theories." These were interpreted and analyzed as if they were systems of philosophy. They were submitted to critical evaluation in terms of empirical truth, logical consistency, and ethical standards. Not much attention was paid to the meaning of these ideas to the masses of people who made up the movement or party, or to the social structure of these groups, or to related problems of sociological relevance.

The article presents some salient changes that have occurred in the social stratification of Euro-American population during the Second World War. Its second objective is to point out which of these changes are likely to continue in the transitory post-war period and which are bound to end with the armistice. Before the war, the factual and legal status of women was unequal to that of men. In all Western countries, with no exception whatsoever, women's political, economic and other rights and privileges were more limited than those of men. Some high positions and functions were legally closed for women; some occupations were either factually or legally monopolized by men. Women's remuneration for similar occupations was lower than for men. Rights of the wife in the family were less extensive than those of the husband. The war saw a dramatic change in this status, with women entering armed forces and other occupations totally monopolized by men. As a result these occupational, economic and functional changes in the position of women, their total status has become closer to that of men.

The article discusses educational reconstruction in Europe after World War II. Concerning the occupied countries, the first thing is to ascertain to what degree the Nazi invasion has influenced the social environment in which a child is to be educated, and especially, the two most important groups, the family and the school. In Europe, particularly in the southeast great shillings of population were brought about by the Nazi policy. First the masses of war prisoners, and second, the slave workers recruited from all over Europe, were brought to Germany. Adult education is certainly undervalued in all plans for educational reconstruction. Until now, the adult education in all of Europe played a significant role, but it was never recognized as equally important, for example, to the secondary schools. However, for the workers its importance was equally as great. Adult education should come into its rightful place after the war with adequate financial support. Until now, it has been supported chiefly by membership contributions and small grants, unlike the schools which were financed by the state or municipalities.

The article discusses the study carried out to measure the consequences of Western civilization over other nations. In recent decades, a general notion has emerged and become widely accepted that as a consequence of the impact of Western civilization the economic, social and cultural conditions of many nations in the future will become similar to those of Western Europe. Social and technical changes in a society and its relationship to demographic characteristics have always been sociological problems. So, in this study the demographic characteristics are considered to be dependent variables reflecting the external structural changes of a social system. The theoretical framework of this study is based upon the interrelation between the structural components of a social system and the types of forces that cause change in the structure of a social system. The national and provincial statistics of the first census of Iran, 1956, and the United Nations Demographic and Statistical Year Books of 1956-57 were used as the major sources of data in this study. This data was analyzed at two levels: provincial and national. The findings of the study suggest that the components of modernization are closely interrelated and are functionally associated with the demographic composition of a population; the modernization forces, especially at the early stage, seem to influence first the public external features of a population, and secondly the private and internal features; the more urbanized the Iranian population becomes, the more its demographic structure resembles the highly modernized societies. Finally, the Western type of industrialization, urbanization, and ideology has an almost universalistic application.

This research study is concerned with the town within its limits as a separate unit, though not with the usual terms of reference, and it also offers some contribution towards the placing of one town in comparison to others as a "central place." Geographical studies of urban areas may be concerned with either of two major aspects. They may, in the first place, be concerned with the study of the town as a physical entity, describing the characteristics of its site and the structure of the urban settlement which has evolved. Secondly, studies may be concerned with the study of the town as a functional entity, analysing the position of the town as a unit in a wider regional setting. It may be said that any town or urban unit is not a homogeneous whole but is rather a close association of component parts. The main divisions which can be observed in the town structure are those between parts incorporating shopping and business, residential and industrial functions. In other parts of Europe and in the United States some attempts have been made to use available statistics to provide a more quantitative analysis and comparison.

The article focuses on the Ten-Nation Disarmament Committee. The committee, which is comprised of five Eastern European nations and five Western powers, illustrates the techniques debate and propaganda maneuvering. Comprehensive disarmament was first considered by the committee. The Soviet Union proposed a treaty on disarmament but were met with objections. Control provisions rather than disarmament were proposed by the Western Powers on the other hand. The authority of the United Nations was called upon to induce acceptance of general and complete disarmament by the Western powers.

The article discusses the role of nuclear war weapons strategy in the applied theory of limited war. In the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's commitment to setting policies on nuclear weapons in defense of Europe, such tactical armaments' control negotiations and agreements are also persuaded by the U.S. for alliance defense efforts. Certain proposed conditions urged by the U.S. on the initiation of nuclear weapons include the enemy's possession of mass army and targets destruction. Declaratory policies from the U.S. are urged to be accompanied by action policies to strengthen armaments strategy in limited wars.

The article presents observations on the European integration process. Degrees of dynamism is reflected by the European integration process. An individual performs different roles, including political, economic and social roles. In Europe, some organizations attempt to influence public bodies. Organizations show interests at both the national and multinational levels. In European integration developments, one of its important aspect is that they are positive. They are active and have purposes and programs. In terms of cross-border contact, the mobility aspect of the European integration process creates a continuous increase in demand for access.

The article presents a comparative study of centre formation, territorial unification and national development. Further, it discusses the imbalances in the current research in nation development, a sample of global models and also suggests a hypothetical model for Europe in this regard. The author makes observation that the extraordinarily rapid wave of decolonization and state formation deeply affected the priorities within the social science community from the mid-fifties onward. The great wave of Third World studies also triggered impressive efforts of theory construction. It is opined that there are marked imbalances in the range of cases and variables covered in comparative analysis of processes of political development. Most comparisons have been limited to institutional or aggregate statistical data for each nation as a unit and have tended to neglect highly significant variations in the rates of growth among competing economic, political or cultural centres and between such centres and the rural peripheries.

The article explores the scope of prevision in religion which has always been one of the chief conditions and causes of religious change. A detailed prevision of the future development of religion was the characteristic feature of the earlier nineteenth-century sociology. In so far as sociological prevision is possible with regard to the organic development of society in general, it will be possible to foresee the social form that religion will tend to acquire in any given culture. The complete secularization of Western culture may be followed by its gradual dissolution and by the reassertion of the traditional religion-cultures of Asia which have been temporarily overshadowed by the European world-hegemony.

The article explores the evolution of property/ownership in after-war constitutions in Europe. A highly important problem that is actively discussed in modem times, especially after the world war, is undisputedly that of property. The origin and legitimacy of property have always been matters for controversy; but the socialist schools have put down this question for immediate action. The attacks directed by socialist schools against the principle of individual property, and the idea of the socialization of property are not new. The principle according to which the rights to private ownership are sacred and inviolable is today nothing more than a fiction. It is ridiculous still to speak of the liberty of property and contract, which in reality no longer exists. For some time attention has been directed to the fact that ownership is no longer unlimited, by citing public dispossession, the right of one's neighbor and, particularly in Germany, Section 308 of the penal code now in force, where ownership is limited by public law.

Modern Statecraft is, in its origin and fashioning, a European product. It is perhaps the most characteristic upshot of contemporary civilisation in Western lands. Yet a view of Modem Statecraft, seen in its essentials and discerned at once simply and comprehensively is hard to attain. Accept the idea, widely held by observant philosophers, that Switzerland is, and has for long been, the political laboratory of Europe, accept this idea and there opens a concrete mode of approach. The prevalent notion of Switzerland as "A Federation of Communes" answers the question what is Switzerland, and answers it incorrectly. Whatever Switzerland may be it is not merely a federation of Communes. Certainly it is a country of small political organisations called Communes. There are over three thousand of them, and they are, in a sense, self-governing with a considerable range of control over their own affairs. And there is truth in the saying that these three thousand odd Communes are the real political units of Switzerland.

There have taken place in the History of Europe a certain small number of great changes in thought which have produced corresponding external results in the structure of society. It is continually repeated that all great changes are effected by minorities. The thing is so necessarily true that it is a attitude--for obviously any new movement must begin in a minority, otherwise it would not be a new movement. It is essential to the understanding of any of the great historical changes to realize that the mass of men on hearing of a new conception, even if it be attractive to them and respond to some need of theirs or to some half-conscious conviction of theirs, do not fully adopt it. It is not at all the same thing to say that people are working enthusiastically for an end, and that they believe that end to be good or true. Men will work for an end because they think its results will be of material advantage to them. So far as one can know the great changes of history, such support from men who were not primarily convinced, who were not the whole hearted apostles of the new things, however useful, has never been decisive.

Local credit societies, in the case of practically every country whose practice is known to the writer, aim at fulfilling the functions both of thrift and of credit institutions. Their aim is to obtain as far as possible within their area of operations all the funds necessary for their business; and by offering security and an adequate return upon deposits they endeavour to gather in, for further productive employment in their district, all the idle capital of members and of all persons within their sphere of influence. The business of a local society when in working order is normally conducted upon the basis of its local receipts, whether from members or non-members, being sufficient to meet local credit demands. The co-operative organisation tends therefore to be threefold: local units, provincial groups, and national combination of the provincial groups. Practically every country in Europe has experienced the necessity of solving the problem of co-operative central organisation, and that while in every case the aid of the State has been invoked either for the provision of capital or of other facilities, in very many cases it has intervened directly and has established a special institution under its own management or supervision.

The article discusses key issues concerning the Garden City movement and civic reconstruction in Europe. The movement is an attempt to re-organize social conditions. Man represents the more individual and woman the more racial and unifying aspect in humanity. The woman, more obviously than the man, lives not for her alone but for others, and considers herself as part of a larger whole. The modern and womanly spirit of sympathy and oneness, influencing men as well as women, shows itself in part in sympathy with women and their claims, and in part drives us to grapple with the social problems of poverty and disorganization. It is admitted that Europe is moving from an age of individualism to an age of social or civic re-organization, and this tendency is connected with the woman movement. It is a recognition of the fact that man does not live by bread alone, and that fair wages and houseroom in a dull street are not all that he need ask of life. It is a demand for recognition of the common life in all its aspects, material and immaterial.

This article discusses the history of Ireland from the sociological standpoint. It is in the light of this simplification that the history of Ireland must be viewed; and so viewed, it will like all extreme cases, like all crucial instances, be found peculiarly rich in sociological material. It is, in its earlier history, a nation from its geographical position less affected by the movements of its neighbors or the general course of development than any other. It thus retained to an unusual extent the characteristics of the ancient Aryan civilization, once common to all Europe, and was peculiarly homogeneous in itself, and markedly separate from its neighbors. This distinction was maintained, in spite of one serious breach, the introduction of Christianity-till the first invasion from the island larger, richer, and closer to the centres of Western civilization, which lay between it and the continent of Europe. And if the earlier history of Ireland is of interest as the case of a Western people growing up in comparative isolation, the later history has an even stronger interest. It is that of a people peculiarly homogeneous and distinctive in their civilization exposed to a continuous pressure from a country possessing far greater resources and in some respects much further developed, an era of isolation followed by an era of domination, a civilization of peculiar strength subjected to an external pressure of peculiar intensity and continuance.

This article presents the review of the literature on the foreign language methodology and methods of two leading European countries. Identifies the drill on grammar and syntax, and the acquisition of cultural background. Direction on the part of English teachers and publishers through a scientific investigation and vocabularies in beginning French courses. Method is implicit in the type of textbook employed. Demonstrates the advantages of the direct method over the grammar method. The conflict between teaching pronunciation by imitation of the teacher alone and the use of phonetics.

The article focuses on the social dilemma in the education of teachers in Western Europe. In this article, a comparative examination regarding the similarities and differences of approach in the education of teachers after the Second World War is presented. The chief concern of this study is with social attitudes and with policies and institutional arrangements resulting from the application of these attitudes. Indications showed a growing awareness of the necessity that teachers be prepared to adjust educational practice to changing social circumstances.

This article is designed to give the readers some impressions which the author has brought back with him from three and a half months spent in Europe attending conferences and visiting social scientists engaged in research related to the churches. The first conference was "A Research Conference on Church Building and Architecture" at the Center for Advanced Architecture Study at York University bringing together some 35 or 40 people with varied interests in churches. It was the first conference of its kind in England and there were not very many social scientists in the group. Church leaders, architects, church builders and specialists in equipment dominated the group but there were a few people who were constantly asking the right questions. There was little in the conference to indicate any working relation between social scientists, social researchers and those people responsible for building churches. The second conference was the Biennial European Convocation on the Sociology of Religion at William Temple College in Rugby.

Apart from certain old works which are considered to be of fundamental importance, this bibliography deals more particularly with studies published since 1945. The choice of this date is not absolutely arbitrary. It has been mainly in the post-war period, as the hitherto colonial people began to rise and the least well-equipped countries made their claims on the victorious nations, that the specific problems of the underdeveloped countries have been forced on the attention of a wider public. Political considerations have, to a very large extent, stimulated scientific research and are still doing so, as is shown by the number of works being published. North American anthropology has given rise to a great number of research projects directly dealing with the subject of this study, most of which are well known, at the same time, the European nations, which have often had long experience in countries overseas, have, on their side, accumulated works which, although not presented according to any uniform system, are of great importance. Great regions which are undoubtedly underdeveloped economically-most of the South American continent, Asia and Africa, Africa has least often been the subject of systematic investigations and surveys.

The article focuses on German and American opinion. In a mere measuring of sympathy with the various peoples of Europe, apart from any judgment upon specific issues in controversy between them, American academic sentiment for the past thirty years, and today as emphatically as ever, is overwhelmingly in favour of the Germans. The Germans think-or at least the Americans who know the Germans best think, and say very freely-that the Germans are particularly strong in traits which one conspicuously lack, and that Americans would be a nobler people than they are if we could reinforce American life with a liberal infusion of German superiorities. In the second place, it would be a great mistake for Germans to suppose that Americans are relatively misinformed about the great outstanding facts in the European situation. On the contrary, it has been evident from the second day of August that, as compared with the other nations of the world, the people of the United States are posted up to date.