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Bringing environmental concerns into focus of innovation processes will in several cases also expand the numbers of actors involved. Eco-innovation and triple helix are often frameworks applied to analyse how environmental concerns are integrated in the innovation processes and how different stakeholder groups are interacting in this connection. Taking the triple helix as the theoretical departure point, this paper discusses the opportunities offered by these triple helix frameworks for analyzing eco-innovation dynamics from both theoretical and practical perspectives. It adds to the debate about stakeholder dynamics in eco-innovation processes by using the discourse of a proactive company to argue for the need for, and a conceptual framing of, a fourth actor in the helix of eco-innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the challenges of communicating the results of a strategic foresight exercise which aimed to support decision-makers in their activities, providing for increased confidence and credibility throughout the process. Foresight recommendations are shaped and derived according to the nature and complexity of the themes being considered, the level of stakeholder participation and, quite frequently, the communication skills of those managing the process. Efforts towards better communication among participants are decisive for successful foresight exercises. This paper stresses that the intangibles are important outcomes, as well as the importance of promoting out-of-the-box thinking during the exercise. Lessons learnt are presented, as well as a case study developed by the Center for Strategic Management and Studies (CGEE), Brasilia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Fourth International Seville Conference on Future-Oriented Technology Analysis (FTA) held in May 2011, focussed on the need and potential of FTA to address disruptive transformations in global and national structures, systems, rules and practices in response to grand societal challenges. This introductory paper provides an overview of selected conference contributions and the perspectives in which they address key issues in the development and implementation of FTA in relation to these challenges. These papers examine the reorientation of research and innovation systems and the integration of FTA within them. New approaches to FTA are also examined, with lessons drawn from the experiences at both national and international levels in the application of FTA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a way of including in official statistics consumers as user innovators who modify or develop products for their own use. The issue addressed is the role of the market in the definition of innovation in the OECD/Eurostat Oslo Manual and the exclusion by that definition of consumers who modify or develop products and then freely reveal the knowledge thus gained to others. A change to the definition, which also has implications for the measurement of innovation in the public sector, is proposed. The policy implications of user innovation by consumers and by firms are considered along with the importance of including consumer user innovation in official statistics. The paper ends with a programme for future work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to identify the macro-environmental dimensions through which Brazilian scientists and government officials have framed issues surrounding liquid biofuels over a period of time. This study analyzes scientific papers published by researchers affiliated with Brazilian institutions and official documents of the Brazilian government related to liquid biofuels. Documents published during a ten-year period (1997-2006) were collected from electronic sources. Text-mining procedures were applied through a framework of macro-environmental dimensions and their corresponding d-words in order to extract high-quality content. Results indicate that the macro-environment developed by Brazilian scientists differs from the one created by the government. Variations in describing macro-environmental dimensions existed for both the Brazilian government and for scientists during the period of analysis. Similarity tests reveal significant differences between the scientific documents and the government documents, indicating that Brazilian public policy regarding liquid biofuels is dissociated from the scientific findings of Brazilian researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much of Lundvall's recent work has focused on the notion of the 'learning economy' and in a series of recent publications he has argued that there are systemic relations between national labour market and education and training systems on the one hand, and processes of competence-building and innovation at the enterprise level on the other. Building on the insights of this research, this paper used aggregate data available on Eurostat's electronic database and enterprise-level data from the 2007 Innobarometer Survey to estimate a multi-level logistic model examining simultaneously the impact of enterprise- and national-level variables on the likelihood of an enterprise innovating. The results show that innovative performance is supported by national systems of 'flexicurity' which combine flexibility on the labour market with the generous provision of unemployment protection including the use of active labour- market policies and well-developed systems of life-long learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we explore new avenues of analysis on the thorny issue of the impact of participatory technology assessment (PTA). We apply qualitative comparative analysis to data abstracted from a series of detailed country case studies of policy-making on xenotransplantation to explore which factors are decisive for policy outcomes. Contrary to our expectations that PTAs would contribute to restrictive policy outcomes, we find that this is not the case and that a combination of politicisation and public vigilance is pivotal to explaining policy outcomes. Further, our analysis was symmetrical in attempting to account for both permissive and restrictive policies. We conclude that the paper makes both a substantial and a methodological contribution to the literature on public participation in technology assessment and policy-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Citizen participation in terms of participatory technology assessment (PTA) has caused a lot of debate in science and technology policy. However, there are still many open questions: What is the actual impact of PTA on policy-making? On which normative theory of democracy is the evaluation of PTA based and does it make a difference which theory is used? Which framework is appropriate to evaluate the often fuzzy impact of PTA on policy-making? Is PTA actually a central element for policy-making or are other factors much more relevant such as politicians' involvement or the presence of industry interests? What is the 'nature' of the public in different national and institutional contexts? How are expectations of policy-makers played out in the perceived need for regulation? These issues are addressed in a series of comparative papers in this issue which focus on the regulation of xenotransplantation in the 1990s and early 2000s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the varying effects of a changing institutional environment on academic research practices in three fields of Dutch animal science. Our analysis shows that the shifts in funding have stimulated interactions with societal stakeholders in fields where this has helped to sustain a basic research agenda. In other fields researchers experience a tension between satisfying the needs of application-oriented funding sources and reaching high scores on evaluations dominated by bibliometric indicators. The paper concludes with the identification of three field characteristics that seem to moderate the effects of institutional changes on academic research practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses Finnish biotechnology policy and combines this with a look at the evolution of a university spin-off company's business models. It offers a rare grass-roots perspective on policy implementation and further develops the business model concept. Business models should be understood as future-oriented 'where-to' artefacts that can be used to develop business activities to meet future economic demands. Concerning policy implementation, this paper highlights the obstacles that small companies encounter when they operate as part of the global knowledge-based economy, as well as describing the solutions that may be developed to overcome such hurdles. The paper concludes that the business activities of high-tech companies might be supported by: first, strengthening the public support systems of young companies; second, developing the business models of those companies so as to gain income early; and finally, focusing national efforts on building new industries in areas where some industrial tradition already exists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the tight coupling between European climate science and policy. Drawing upon the analytical idiom of co-production it examines how knowledge-making practices are incorporated into European climate policy-making, and more importantly, how EU climate policy has influenced the funding, making and interpretation of useful European climate policy research. The paper identifies a tension between the critical/reflexive ambition built into the co-production idiom, and the more utilitarian interpretation of the term. Whereas the former sets out to expose and interrogate the ontological assumptions underpinning public policy, the latter seeks to be useful by responding to the knowledge needs of societal decision-makers. This tension is analysed through a case study of the integrated research project ADAM (Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies: Supporting European Climate Policy) funded under the 6th Framework Programme of the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship between innovation activity and firm size in the South African context. Based on data from the National Innovation Survey (2002-2004) the paper looks in particular at the nature of innovation by small, medium- and micro-sized enterprises (SMMEs). The main finding is that the innovation rate of SMMEs is relatively high, with small enterprises reporting the highest innovation rate. A limited dependent variable regression, however, determines a negative statistically significant relationship between the probability to innovate and firm size. SMMEs are therefore not more innovative than large enterprises in South Africa. This paper identifies innovative entrepreneurs and micro enterprises as important foci for entrepreneurship and innovation policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, we investigate empirically the economic implications of increasing the threshold funding limits on Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) awards. Specifically, we estimate the impact of an increase in an SBIR Phase II research award amount on the likelihood that the funded project will reach technical completion, that is, it will not be discontinued early or fail. Although an increase in the threshold amount of Phase II awards was mandated by the Act of 1992, and although a recent SBIR policy directive allows such, the economic implications of an increase have yet to be considered in any systematic manner. Second, we offer a call for a further evaluation of the SBIR program, and more broadly a prospective evaluation of public-private partnership science and technology programs, along the lines of an investigation of the determinants of milestone successes and failures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observance of acceptable ethical behaviour is compulsory for good research, particularly when such research puts the well-being of humans at risk. Internationalization of clinical research in developing countries raises ethical concerns. Are the study subjects aware of, and sufficiently protected against, the inherent risks of drug testing? Public policy is called upon to minimize risks while increasing the opportunities for host countries to benefit from participation in clinical research. This paper discusses some minimum principles required for clinical trials to be ethical. Based on evidence from Mexico, the paper illustrates how factors such as: slow regulatory reforms, insufficient empowerment of regulatory agencies, and disconnection among agents increase the risks of unethical behaviour in clinical research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the emergence of public sector international joint laboratories as an increasingly important new phenomenon in the internationalisation of public sector research. Using a survey and interview-based qualitative methodology, it explores the trends in the establishment of such laboratories, the aims for which they are established and the extent to which these aims are met. We find a considerable degree of organisational diversity among them in terms of size, structure, resources and legal status. Since the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and the German Max-Planck-Gesellschaft have been very active in setting up joint laboratories, the paper undertakes two case studies of the instruments of these organisations based on the background literature and in-depth interviews. We argue that their joint laboratories are examples of the institutionalisation of the dymanics of previously self-organised international collaborations and that they have developed these international collaborations to achieve specific organisational goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares the results of four country studies (Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica and Mexico) on the relative effectiveness of channels of interactions between public research organisations (PROs) and industry in driving specific types of benefits for researchers and firms. All studies used micro-datasets developed by a joint project using common questionnaires. Channels of interactions were classified into four groups (traditional, services, bi-directional and commercial) while benefits were classified into two groups for firms (short-term production and long-term innovation) and for researchers (economic and intellectual). It is found that the bi-directional (knowledge flows in both directions) and the services (knowledge flows mainly from PROs to firms) channels drive intellectual benefits for researchers. Firms tend to value the traditional channel (i.e. graduates, publications, conferences) more than any other channel. However, it is the bi-directional channel that drives the best benefits, especially those related to contributions to innovation activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of knowledge transfer between public research organisations and industry occurs through multiple channels of interaction, however, there are differences in terms of the benefits that the agents perceive. Based on micro-data, this paper explores which channels are the most effective for triggering different benefits perceived by researchers and firms involved in such interactions in Mexico. The results suggest that researchers obtain intellectual benefits from the bi-directional and the traditional channels. Firms obtain benefits related to production activities and innovation strategies from the bidirectional and the services channels, while the traditional channel only provides production-related benefits. These results raise different policy issues. First, fostering the bi-directional channel could contribute to building virtuous circles. Secondly, it is necessary to align the incentives to foster other channels of interaction. Thirdly, a change in the researchers' incentives is required to induce new benefits from interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the industrial innovation landscape of Pakistan's North West Frontier Province (NWFP) presenting results from its first innovation survey (2008). Analysing data collected from 304 industrial firms, this paper confirms that only 14% of the surveyed firms possessed an in-house research and development unit and around 50% of firms have no scientists or engineers working for them. Science and technology (S&T) indicators are used to provide a better understanding of the current weaknesses and strengths of industry in the NWFP. The involvement of the private sector is essential for industrial competitiveness, which in turn is crucial to formulate and implement S&T policy. This is a major challenge for Pakistan, since its national security and other geopolitical concerns currently dominate most other public policy issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, horizon scanning has been recognised as part of forward-looking government processes in a number of industrialised countries. It helps policy-makers in addressing the diversity of future societal and environmental challenges and in addressing the potential of emerging areas of science and technology in an integrated way. This paper discusses the usefulness of horizon scanning as an additional tool for future-oriented technology analysis activities, such as technology foresight and scenario building. Analysing the national horizon scans of the UK, the Netherlands and Denmark in a joint horizon pilot project initiated under the ERA-Net ForSociety, this paper makes a series of recommendations regarding horizon scanning processes at the national level and the construction of common future-oriented policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a future-oriented technology analysis (FTA) project on the control and management of emerging infectious diseases (EID) in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation region. It combines several FTA methods. Technologies that are potentially effective in biosecurity and in combating EID were first identified by bibliometric analysis, online survey and scenario planning. Roadmaps of these technologies were then built. Workshops to conduct the foresight process were held in the region. Four scenarios and six technology roadmaps for the region were developed. The results show that many future technologies will converge to become most effective in dealing with biosecurity and EID. This paper deals with cross-disciplinary technologies in the context of a cross-boundary regional setting, which has important methodological implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper addresses the issue of characterization and classification of universities in the European system, by using the recently developed Aquameth dataset. Preliminary cluster analysis based on structural variables identifies systematic differences in size. However, this structural distinction is associated with differences in strategic orientation of universities (towards research or towards teaching, respectively) only in a few countries. In most European countries there are no discernible differences across universities along these dimensions. The paper argues that countries in which universities are more differentiated according to research or teaching dimensions have implemented differentiation policies through a variety of policy instruments. In turn, these countries also are ranked high in international rankings of universities. This suggests a structural linkage between the poor performance of European universities in research-based rankings and the lack of differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper builds on the recommendation in the Scientific and Technological Options Assessment report for the European Parliament to improve the European patent system to 'increase access to patented inventions'. The paper first provides some background information on the patent system and the limitations on access to protected technology from 'thickets' and the so-called 'tragedy of the anticommons'. It then discusses the use of (some) post-grant measures to increase access to patented inventions. Traditionally, patent law has not paid much attention to such measures. The paper argues that developments suggest that there is good reason to reconsider this reluctance and to include measures in the European patent legislation which seek to increase access to patented inventions. Finally, the paper discusses three such measures: compulsory licences, licences of rights, and behavioural rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This introductory paper explores a number of topics on creativity and innovation discussed at the IASP World Conference held in Barcelona in 2007. The papers selected for this special issue are introduced, and theoretical and methodological approaches related to creativity and innovation are discussed. The fundamentals, strategies, statistics, programs and networking variables concerning worldwide science and technology (S&T) parks are considered. The paper stresses the impact of the array of knowledge sources. It also analyses the role of the powerful, tangible and intangible assets of the existing S&T parks as well as the management of the many agents active in organised network structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the co-evolution of science, technology and innovation policy and industrial structure in a small, open, resource-based economy (Norway). The contributions of the paper are threefold. First, it develops an evolutionary and historically oriented approach to the study of the development of these policies that may have wide applicability. Second, it focuses on a particular type of innovation, innovation in resource-based activities, that differs in many respects from the more commonly studied case of innovation in 'high-tech' industries. Third, the paper advances our understanding of the roles played by institutions and politics in innovation. Previous work on national systems of innovation has devoted little attention to these matters, possibly because much of this work examines 'snapshots' of various innovation systems at a specific point in time and lacks historical depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy-makers in the EU have increasingly emphasised the role of public procurement as a policy instrument that can be used to stimulate innovation. This development reflects and responds to a growing concern among EU member states about how to maintain competitive advantage in an economic environment increasingly subject to global competition. To contribute to these emerging policies, this paper develops an innovation theory-based approach regarding public procurement of innovations, by elaborating an institutional focus. In contrast to current institutional approaches in innovation studies, the approach applied here brings in the often neglected endogenous perspective. The empirical studies cited in this paper suggest that the needs of endogenous, or informal, institutions also need to be taken into account in order to understand better the institutional set-up enabling public procurement of innovations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents case studies on how Cuban universities have increasingly become directly involved with the economic and social development of the country. The paper shows how Cuban universities, from the late 1980s and early 1990s, started reorientation and organization of their scientific research, becoming more directly and intensely involved in the economic and social development of the country. In this connection, special reference is made to the case of a research group at the University of Havana: the Laboratory of Synthetic Antigens. This group developed the first synthetic vaccine for human use approved in the world. In the article, public policies involved in this success as well as different obstacles are discussed. These obstacles demonstrate the difficulties and challenges that universities face when carrying out research and innovation activities related to economic and social development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the third mission of universities, based on a case study of the University of the Republic in Uruguay. It draws on the perceptions and opinions of a broad range of actors, from academia to enterprises, and from parliament to trade unions. The University of the Republic is the only public university in the country, and it has played a major role in its history. The university's relevance, legitimacy and respectability were conveyed in the interviews, though counterbalanced by questions concerning its future role. The high appreciation of the university clearly has its limitations: societal support should not be taken for granted and criticisms emerge hand-in-hand with excessive expectations of the role the university can play. The specific analysis of the third mission permeates the paper as an open question, and definition of this mission is an on-going process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses the development of the third mission of Chinese universities. The main approaches and challenges of two universities, Tsinghua University and Beihang University, are examined to elucidate the third mission of Chinese research universities in a knowledge-based economy. The paper examines the present profit-seeking behavior of research universities and argues that while it is essential to support the development of some élite university-run S&T enterprises and to promote the commercialization of the research results during the transformation of the Chinese economy, the government must counteract the negative consequences and prevent the universities from losing their public service identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Denmark, third mission activities were for the first time explicitly formulated as mandatory in the University Act of May 2003, and the purpose of this paper is to analyze current third mission experiences from two younger Danish universities (University of Southern Denmark and Aalborg University). The two case studies show that third mission activities are perceived and implemented in different ways, depending on factors both internal and external to the university. Third mission activities are becoming more strategic for the universities and their collaboration partners, and the paper concludes that there is a need for universities, policy-makers and society in general to find a balance between commercialization and open access to university-generated knowledge, a balance between third mission activities aiming at industry demand and broader societal considerations, and a balance between the allocation of financial and other resources among the three missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research policy (RP) arena has been transforming in recent years, turning into a policy mix encompassing the diversity of policy instruments embedded in, and following different policy rationales and aims. Its complexity defies attempts for complex comparative analysis and eventually, a better understanding of what kind of (mixes of) funding instruments work better than others and in which situations. In this article, we address this gap by developing a conceptual framework that allows us to build the policy mix idea into the analysis of research funding instruments (RFIs), by relying on four dimensions: policy rationales, implementation modalities, policy actors, and the funding instruments interactions. We base our work on a careful literature review, especially drawing on the work of researchers who have developed similar frameworks in other policy areas, bringing it together with that of RP scholars, capturing the issues that are key to analyzing and understanding RFIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge and values are the two main ingredients of public decision-making. In the past, the predominant paradigm of such decision-making was based on an approach of value-neutral science and aimed at processing both ingredients in a disentangled way. However, this approach has some theoretical and practical drawbacks, for which reason several alternative paradigms of public decision-making arose. In this paper we highlight the importance of another paradigm of such decision-making within so-called epistemic regimes. We do so against the background of the discussion of value-neutral science and provide a conceptual analysis of the notion of a regime which allows us to outline the underlying structure of re-entangling knowledge and values in epistemic regimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alongside theories of innovation, different measures of innovativeness and innovative capability have been developed. However, there are problems with the existing evaluation tools, especially when considering the dynamics of innovation processes. The measurement of the innovativeness of regions is particularly challenging. This paper describes recent changes in regional innovation policy models. It is argued that these policy models demand new tools for evaluating regional innovative capability. This paper tries to overcome some of the problems of the current evaluation tools. It outlines a framework for the network-based innovative capability evaluation matrix for evaluating and developing regional innovation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most scientific institutions acknowledge the importance of opening the so-called 'ivory tower' of academic research through popularization, industrial collaboration or teaching. However, little is known about the actual openness of scientific institutions and how their proclaimed priorities translate into concrete measures. This paper gives an idea of some actual practices by studying three key points: the proportion of researchers who are active in wider dissemination, the academic productivity of these scientists, and the institutional recognition of their wider dissemination activities in terms of their careers. We analyze extensive data about the academic production, career recognition and teaching or public/industrial outreach of several thousand of scientists, from many disciplines, from France's Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. We find that, contrary to what is often suggested, scientists active in wider dissemination are also more active academically. However, their dissemination activities have almost no impact (positive or negative) on their careers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the power of scientific experts in standard-setting. It looks at the emergence of a set of principles for food hygiene known as HACCP, and their transformation into an international standard. Scientists are key actors of standardisation, because of their ability to include potential users and standard-setters in a common process of generification and replication of practices. In the case of HACCP, this occurred through the conceptualisation of practices, that is the enunciation and encapsulation of their generic properties into an exportable formula. The paper presents the determinants and the limits of the power of scientists to undertake such inclusive tactics of standardisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the increase in internationalisation of science is well documented, there is less literature that explicitly addresses the driving forces behind this trend. In this paper we investigate the relationship between science policy and the growth of international scientific collaboration. We look into whether overall globalisation trends can explain changes in internationalisation, or whether such changes may be better understood as consequences of organised political efforts within the area of science and research policy. We also focus on the relationship between international collaboration and foreign funding, because the share of research funding coming from foreign sources has risen in most countries. The intention of the present paper is to focus on this issue using Norway as a case study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the interplay between foreign direct investment (FDI) and the industrial and innovation policies of host economies. Drawing on insights from both business and policy literature, the paper argues that the prevailing macroeconomic perspective related to the attraction of FDI inflows and disregard for existing foreign subsidiaries are misleading. The rationale for this claim is the very fact that foreign subsidiaries are part of the innovation and the industrial systems of their host countries. Hence, their economic and innovative performances impact the overall dynamics and competitiveness of their host countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents data on publication and collaboration patterns of USA and German research institutions in the field of global environmental change research. A dataset derived from the Web of Science showed that a marked rise in international co-authorship occurred in the period 1993-2002. However, this increase covered different world regions unevenly. Building on interview data, four factors driving international collaboration in this particular research area are identified which help to explain this specific trend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After an extensive period of public controversy, the Danish parliament legalised stem cell research on 'spare' embryos in 2003. This paper argues that this legalisation was dependent on a perception of acceptability among the public and explores how public debate can serve a 'performatory function' in establishing such a situation of perceived legitimacy. The intention of this paper, however, is not to examine the Danish controversies in order to unravel the substantial ethico-political issues in the governance of stem cell research, but rather to understand the specific processes through which the formation of public opinion has contributed to the shaping of the acceptability of stem cell research. The paper analyses the various constructions of legitimate voices and their representation in the policy process and demonstrates that the framing of representation changed during the policy process. This change in framing made it possible to obtain a compromise, and can therefore be seen as a necessary precondition for the decision to permit stem cell research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The delegation of authority in research funding to multi-actor networks that include users is seen as a way to make research more responsive to users' needs. This paper analyzes multi-actor networks for the planning and execution of agricultural research in The Netherlands. It shows that delegation of authority to networks also generates several tensions, and requires substantial role adjustments and institutional learning for the actors involved (government, researchers, intermediaries such as research councils, and user groups) in order to effectively operate in the network. The paper indicates that the principal--agent perspective often used for analyzing the science--policy relationship can be a useful tool for analyzing the multilateral relationships in networks, but needs to be complemented by theories that better capture the notion of co-production in such 'webs of cross-cutting ties'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The challenge of dual-use biotechnology in the 21st century has led the scientific community to the conclusion that greater education of life scientists is needed regarding the biological weapons threat. While education is undoubtedly important, when looking at the analogous situation with the antinuclear movement during the Cold War it becomes apparent that scientific networks contributed much more than just education. This paper suggests contributions the life science community could make towards dealing with the biochemical weapons threat, taking into consideration the evolving geostrategic and technological climate. The paper concludes that after education there is a great deal more the life science community needs to do. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers the biological weapons problem as a post-disarmament issue requiring 'management' or 'governance' rather than 'disarmament' or 'arms control'. This allows for a broader analysis of the BW problem, one where a range of relevant issues, threats, challenges and actors can be examined, as well as nation-states, international treaties, terrorist groups and the like. The paper therefore provides a more accurate depiction of the wide range of current efforts to minimise the chances of biology being misused for hostile purposes. It aims to explain how and why networks and non-state actors have emerged to play a bigger role in the governance of biological technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies how investments in knowledge codification may be used as innovation policy tools, in a non-interventionist policy environment. Analysing statistically and historically the case of the UK's Department of Trade and Industry, from the early 1980s to 2002, the paper shows how knowledge codification can be used as policy-instrument for restructuring the design, characteristics and implementation of public innovation support as well as for developing new national competitive competences. This paper suggests that within a context of outsourced policy implementation and execution, the continuous upgrade of public support for innovation requires that both governmental department and external suppliers engage in 'learning-by-codifying'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1998 the first competence centre programme was introduced to Austria. The programme was a major policy innovation for the country, not only due to its novel instruments and goals, but also because it was created in a new way, breaking with the policy style dominant in the RTD policy field before. The paper looks into the question why this major policy innovation could take place. This analysis applies a policy learning approach, and considers the knowledge resources utilized for the programme creation, implementation and evaluation as well as the forms of learning which took place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-term changes in knowledge production can produce mismatches between the research that society requires and the research that society produces -- what we term 'relevance gaps'. This paper explores what can be done to close them. The paper argues that current structures for governing research are often inappropriate, damage the reputation and value system of the academy, and produce a widespread perception that much research is irrelevant. New ways are needed to address how disciplinary value judgements and the structure of peer review influence the direction of academic research. Alternatives to current peer-review practices and guidelines for funding agencies are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses the strengths and limitations of 'metrics' and peer review in large-scale evaluations of scholarly research performance. A real challenge is to combine the two methodologies in such a way that the strength of the first compensates for the limitations of the second, and vice versa. It underlines the need to systematically take into account the unintended effects of the use of metrics. It proposes a set of general criteria for the proper use of bibliometric indicators within peer-review processes, and applies these to a particular case: the UK Research Assessment Exercise (RAE). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that the extent to which national human resources for science and technology (HRST) are efficiently used and internationally competitive depends on the overall performance of three inter-related national environments, namely: the human resources development environment (supply); the deployment environment (demand); and the drawing-in environment (public policy and legislation). The three environments and the relations among them shape the labour market dynamics for HRST workforce, which in turn can be analysed in an analytic framework developed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new style of politics and policy-making is emerging in the 'new economy' era in India, and in Bangalore, Karnataka in particular. This is dominated by a science-business elite who present a particular vision of the future to the exclusion of others. This paper tells the story of the making of the Karnataka Millennium Biotechnology Policy, asking what policy-making means in practice, who are the policy-makers and what are the technical, political and bureaucratic processes underlying policymaking? By examining the contested politics of biotechnology, the paper examines the limits to such elite-driven, technocratic approaches in the democratic context of India, pointing to the need for more inclusive and accountable policy processes in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the challenges of new converging technologies to governance, pointing out the difficulties politics and public policy face in keeping pace with the rapid progress of such technologies and balancing benefits, risks and uncertainties. The driving question behind this paper is what can theory and practice learn from each other in governing technology for development? The relationships among technology, development and governance are explored, leading the way for further papers in this special issue to question how governance is occurring in practice, what forms of decision-making are taking place, and how the politics of development are being played out through technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Governance arrangements for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are widely acknowledged as important, but often inadequately implemented. This paper examines legitimation and harmonisation issues around evolving GMO governance in Africa. It draws on empirical research from Ethiopia, South Africa and pan-African biosafety system harmonisation initiatives. Analysis shows that the process of institutionalising biosafety systems has become a major source of contention, and dominant protagonists have emerged on both sides of the debate. The legitimacy of the emerging systems is, however, at stake, since those making and implementing the rules are perceived as having failed to find a way through the competing views and concerns over GMOs. The paper highlights the need for a competence-based and more inclusive approach to governing GMOs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper conceptualises networks of excellence (NoEs), a new funding instrument in the EU's Sixth Framework Programme for research, to propose how to monitor and assess the achievement of their objectives. It analyses the dynamics of NoEs and potential changes taking place in an NoE during its lifetime (funding period of five to seven years). It discusses critically some of the assumptions underlying the creation of NoEs by devoting special attention to the concept of integration and its relationship to excellence. The paper further draws attention to different dimensions of integration and how these could be measured. The analysis was developed for a particular NoE called PRIME, and has some limitations because of this focus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]