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The paper presents a summary of my thesis (G. Eckert, Sprachtypus und Geschichte. Untersuchungen zum typologischen Wandel des Franzosischen, Tubingen 1986 a, 293 p., supervised by Eugenio Coseriu). It deals with a typological approach where “typus” is defined as the highest structural level of a language. The “typus” is realized at different systemic levels and at different positions within the architecture of a language, e.g. in the standard language as well as in the social, dialectal and stylistic variations of a language. E. Coseriu (1971) has shown that the Romance Languages synchronically and diachronically all function according to the “Romance typus”. Old French yet belongs to the Romance languages and applies the “Romance typus” in its different systems. As of Middle French, howewer, the linguistic development follows another direction : a “French typus” arises and develops through the history of the French language. Middle French does not appear to have different, disparate changes but rather shows the beginning of a new systematization which follows the principle of the “French typus” : the principle of “external” or “syntagmatic determination” without making a difference between “relational” and “non-relational” functions. The paper exemplarily investigates the categories number, gender, person, the comparative and word formation by comparing the different diachronic stages of French, Old French, Middle French and Modem French. It is shown that the approach is able to explain coherently not only the development of Standard French but also spoken French and even the deviations of « francais avance » (see G. Eckert 1986 b) in a typological framework from a diachronic perspective.

This paper studies the development of two diseases, hysteria and hypocondria which have embodied the social, political and medical context of the XIXth century. Starting with the study of both illness, the paper then focuses on hysteria. The analysis is driven through the medical and literary discourses, lt also builds a tigh link between these deseases and the political and social changes which occured during the XIXth century. This paper argues that medicine and its discourse has played an important role in the arrangement of the gender gap within society. Therefore the move from an ethiology of hysteria due to uterus disorders to an ethiology of neuro-cerebral disturbance illustrates how the social organisation of gender differences has been conducted., Cet article propose l'analyse de l'évolution de deux maladies-miroirs du XIXe siècle, l'hystérie et l'hypocondrie puis celle de l'hystérie seule. Ces maladies sont étudiées à travers les énoncés médicaux et le discours littéraire dans leurs liens avec les changements politiques et sociaux. Il s'agit de mettre au jour le rôle de la médecine et de ses constructions discursives dans le reclassement constant de la place de chaque sexe dans la société. Les étapes d'une étiologie hystérique utérine à une étiologie neuro-cérébrale sont ainsi significatives des réajustements de l'organisation sociale de la différence des sexes., Edelman Nicole. Représentation de la maladie et construction de la différence des sexes. Des maladies de femmes aux maladies nerveuses, l'hystérie comme exemple. In: Romantisme, 2000, n°110. De la représentation, histoire et littérature. pp. 73-87.

Richard Whatmore and James Livesey, Etienne Clavière, Jacques-Pierre Brissot and the intellectual origins of Girondin politics The aim of this paper is a more precise understanding of the origins of Girondin ideology. Since it is not possible to provide an analysis of the writings of all of the members of the group attention focuses on two figures who were the first to formulate the political ideas that defined a Girondin in the early 1790s. The first is Jacques-Pierre Brissot and the second Etienne Clavière. The central claim of this paper is that Girondin ideas can only be understood against the background of the Genevan revolution of 1782 and the subsequent attempt, in the light of the failure of the Genevan revolution, to make France into a modern republic rather than a Jacobin classical republic or a civilized monarchy of the kind advocated by Turgot., Le but de cet article est de permettre une compréhension plus précise des origines de l'idéologie girondine à partir d'une analyse des écrits de deux personnages qui furent les premiers à formuler les idées politiques définissant celle-ci dans les années 1790 : Jacques-Pierre Brissot et Etienne Clavière. Cet article veut montrer que les idées girondines ne peuvent être comprises qu'avec en toile de fond la révolution de Genève de 1782, tandis que l'essai ultérieur de faire de la France une république moderne, plutôt qu'une monarchie civilisée défendue par Turgot ou une république radicale jacobine, ne peut être étudié qu'à la lumière de l'échec de cette révolution., Whitmore Richard, Livesey James. Etienne Clavière, Jacques-Pierre Brissot et les fondations intellectuelles de la poli­tique des Girondins (I). In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°321, 2000. pp. 1-26.

Jânis LanginS, Pre-revolutionary discourse at the Academy of Science : the example of Montalembert. In the decade before the French Revolution, the Royal Academy of Sciences came under increasing attack from critics such as Marat and Mesmer. It was depicted by them as closed to new ideas and a den of unwarranted privilege. These attacks were by outsiders who were thwarted in their efforts to gain recognition and admittance to the Academy. This paper describes what appears to be a more discreet but equally ferocious campaign against the Academy by one of the members of the Academy itself, the marquis Marc-René de Montalembert (1714-1800), who was an associé libre of the Academy mainly as the result of court connections. Montalembert was a soldier, diplomat, and author of a system of fortification vigorously rejected by the leadership of the military engineering corps. Both sides in this polemic over fortification resorted to the Academy as a tribunal in their quarrel, and Montalembert began his campaign against the Academy after he failed to win its unqualified support for his system. The paper concludes with the suggestion that he represents the last of a type of noble amateur who expected deference from his fellow academicians and when he did not get it joined his social inferiors in their anti-academic discourse. In this, he behaved like some other members of his class in the domain of politics in general in their attacks on the monarchy in the waning years of the Ancien Régime., Dans la décennie qui précéda la Révolution, les attaques contre l'Académie royale des sciences se sont multipliées de la part de détracteurs qui, tels Marat ou Mesmer, la dépeignaient comme un repaire d'injustes privilèges fermé aux idées nouvelles. Ces attaques, extérieures à l'Académie, provenaient de personnes auxquelles elle avait refusé reconnaissance et siège. Cette communication décrit une autre campagne, sans doute plus discrète mais tout aussi féroce, menée par un de ses membres, le marquis Marc-René de Montalembert (1714-1800), dont l'élection comme associé libre avait été le résultat de ses liens avec la Cour. Soldat et diplomate, Montalembert était auteur d'un système de fortification rejeté avec virulence par la hiérarchie du corps royal du Génie. Dans cette polémique sur la fortification, les deux parties en appelèrent à l'Académie et, lorsque cette dernière refusa de soutenir son système, Montalembert commença à l'attaquer. Le personnage est présenté ici comme le dernier représentant d'un type d'amateur noble qui, n'obtenant pas de ses confrères la déférence qu'il croyait lui être due, rejoignit le discours anti-académique de critiques socialement inférieurs. Ce faisant, il se comporta comme ceux de son ordre qui, dans le domaine politique, attaquèrent la monarchie dans les dernières années de l'Ancien Régime., LANGINS JANIS. Un discours prérévolutionnaire à l'Académie des sciences : l'exemple de Montalembert. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°320, 2000. pp. 159-171.

Money and Canadian Finances at the Beginning of the XIXth Century : Transformation of System. Although it sketches the longer evolution, this paper studies the emergence new financial institutions in the 1810s-1820s, in Lower Canada, concomitant with the great discontinuity that stamps the socio-economy at the turn of the XIXth century. Some theoretical considerations on money and financial institutions lead to an analysis of the Canadian financial system, prior to and after this economic transformation. It shows, in particular, the central role played by the state in creating credit, in insuring a steady flow of specie and in stabilizing the financial situation. It is the state again that produced the first large-scale paper-money, during the British Regime : the Army Bills that served to finance the war of 1812-1815. They were the immediate predecessors of the creation of banks, from 1817 on, and of bank-notes. But the Canadian financial system would always be controlled by the state to a greater degree than that of the United States., Paquet Gilles, Wallot Jean-Pierre. Monnaies et finance canadiennes au début du XIXe siècle : un système en mutation. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 39ᵉ année, N. 6, 1984. pp. 1299-1329.

Public Rituals for Private Consumption : Television's Royal Wedding The televising of public events of a political nature adapts the traditional realm of ceremony to a very modern form of "publicness". one inherited from cinema. Audience members are isolated, separated, both from each other and from the focus of the occasion. Their experience is one of not-being-there. Exploring a particular festive occasion—the wedding of the Prince Charles and the Lady Diana Spencer (London, 1981)—this paper extends Benjamin's thesis on the status of "art in the age of mechanical reproduction" to the domain of ritual. We suggest that one can no longer conceive of occasions without television, but only (and only in the abstract) of occasions minus television. In other terms, television's broadcast of an event increasingly turns into the "real" event, while the original event is demoted to the status of a matrix, of a studio-setting, of a convenient but ancillary prop. Based on a comparison between different types of public occasions and the mode of participation involved in each, this paper analyses the way in which a collective event survives the family-centered circumstances of its reception. Television seems to blur the dividing line between "public and "private". Public ceremonies are offered for private consumption. Is such a consumption still ceremonial in nature ?, Dayan Daniel, Katz Elihu. Rituels publics à usage privé : métamorphose télévisée d'un mariage royal. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 38ᵉ année, N. 1, 1983. pp. 3-20.

Archaeological Surveys in Greece and the Mediterranean Area It is assumed, by many archaeologists and by virtually all non-archaeologists, that excavation is the only form of primary fieldwork open to the subject; indeed, for many laymen, excavation is archaeology. It is argued in this paper, first, that some of the unsatisfactory character of archaeological evidence, when applied to other studies, in fact arises from its dependence on excavation; and secondly, that there is an alternative technique available, in the form of archaeological survey, which can complement excavation and which is free of some of its faults. The paper seeks to make a case for intensive survey as the optimal method, and describes the main characteristics of this method. The difficult problems of sampling are also discussed. Finally, the paper enumerates some of the criticisms most often made of intensive survey, and attempts to answer some of them while conceding the validity of others., Snodgrass Anthony M. La prospection archéologique en Grèce et dans le monde méditerranéen. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 37ᵉ année, N. 5-6, 1982. pp. 800-812.

Innovations within the American Monetary Institutions and Theorizing (1862-1913). The Greenbacks "Revisited". This paper surveys the Greenbacks era initiated in 1862 when the Treasury of New York issued non-convertible paper money intended to finance the Civil War. As regards institutions the evolution towards unified US monetary system is the consequence of a very complex social and economic, political and doctrinal process. This episode seems still to have an influence upon contemporaneous discussions of monetary policy. As regards theory, these years 1862-1913 played an important role in the emergence of an American school of economic thought. So W. Mitchell, starting from an institutional point of view, built the quantitative tools for analyzing business cycles. I. Fisher extended quantitative theory to credit money and its relations with the cycles. Could the Greenbacks be the remote origin in the shift from the English political economy to the American economic analysis ?, Coriat Benjamin, Boyer Robert. Innovations dans les institutions et l'analyse monétaires américaines : les greenbacks « revisités ». In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 39ᵉ année, N. 6, 1984. pp. 1330-1359.

Thomas Hippler, German soldiers in Napoleon's army according to ego-documents : micro-republicanism and de-civilisation. The end of the eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries are considered as the period during which modern nationalisms were shaped. The nationalisation of the armed forces - chiefly through an institution of compulsory military service - is one of the major characteristics of the era. However, a significant number of the soldiers in Napoleon's army were foreigners. This paper considers the attitudes of German soldiers in the Grande Armée, as they were expressed in ego-documents. These men were influenced by forms of military sociability and discipline that contrasted with the prevalent image of the « military estate » in their home country. The article establishes a parallel between this « micro-republicanism » and strategic choices and analyses how the military defeat in Russia and elsewhere, contributed to transforming these forms of military sociability into an experience of de-civilisation., La fin du XVIIIe et le début du XIXe siècle sont considérés comme période de formation des nationalismes modernes et la nationalisation des forces armées, notamment à travers une institution comme le service militaire, est l'un des traits les plus marquants de l'histoire militaire de cette époque. Toutefois, une partie importante des soldats dans l'armée napoléonienne étaient des étrangers. L'article analyse les attitudes des soldats allemands dans la Grande Armée, notamment à partir de leurs autobiographies. Ces hommes sont impressionnés par les formes de discipline et de sociabilité militaires « républicaines », qui font un contraste marqué avec l'image prévalente de l'« état militaire » dans leur pays d'origine. L'article établit un parallèle entre ce « micro-républicanisme » et les choix stratégiques, et décrit comment la déroute militaire, notamment en Russie, a contribué à transformer cette forme de sociabilité militaire en expérience de dé-civilisation., Hippler Thomas. Les soldats allemands dans l'armée napoléonienne d'après leurs autobiographies : micro-républicanisme et décivilisation. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°348, 2007. Guerre(s), Société(s), Mémoire. pp. 117-130.

Julie Ollfvier, The Measures adopted in the Russian Empire towards the French suspected of having revolutionary sympathies. From the beginning of the French Revolution, Catherine II supported the cause of émigré princes, but it was only in the summer of 1792 that she decided to sever all relations with the Revolutionary government. The French community living in Russia composed of nearly 2500 persons found itself under surveillance and held suspect by the Russian power. Some Frenchmen were arrested for having expressed their revolutionary opinions too openly. On 8 Februrary 1793, an oukasse compelled all the French to take an oath of loyalty to the Monarchy and to religion. But the persecutions did not cease, and numerous persons in the years that followed were expelled from the Empire or deported to Siberia for different crimes. Whether they voiced opinions considered too audacious in favor the Revolution or against Russia, or they violated prohibitions to go to France or communicate with their relatives who remained in the country, or they tried to conceal their identity with false papers, they did not escape Russian justice. Above all, three cases of espionage, only one of them well-founded, showed the severity of the Tsarina. After her death in 1796, this repression continued under her son Paul 1, whose police was exceptionally efficient. While he offered an asylum to Louis XVIII in Mitau, or claimed to serve the Army of Condé, and threw his Empire into a war against France during the Second Coalition, the situation of French residents in Russia remained exceedingly difficult, and every slip up could have grave consequences. It was only at the dawn of a new century, when Paul 1 grew closer to Bonaparte that suspicion about the French declined. But from 1792 to 1799, there were many victims of these measures, whether or not they were true sympathizers with the Revolution., Dès le commencement de la Révolution Française, Catherine II soutient la cause des princes émigrés, mais ce n'est que dans l'été 1792 qu'elle décide de rompre toutes les relations avec le gouvernement révolutionnaire. La communauté française qui réside en Russie, et qui compte près de 2 500 individus, se voit dès lors surveillée et suspectée par le pouvoir russe. Quelques Français sont arrêtés pour avoir trop haut exprimé des opinions révolutionnaires. Le 8 février 1793, un oukase oblige tous les Français à prêter serment de fidélité à la monarchie et à la religion. Cependant les persécutions ne cessent pas, et de nombreuses personnes, dans les années qui suivent, sont expulsées de l'Empire ou déportées en Sibérie pour différents délits. Qu'ils aient prononcé des paroles trop audacieuses en faveur de la Révolution ou contre la Russie, qu'ils aient enfreint les interdictions de se rendre en France ou de communiquer avec leurs relations restées dans ce pays, qu'ils aient tenté de dissimuler leur identité par de faux papiers, ils n'échappent pas à la justice russe. Surtout, trois affaires d'espionnage, dont une seule finalement est fondée, montrent toute la rigueur de la tsarine. Après sa mort en novembre 1796, cette répression se poursuit sous son fils Paul Ier, dont la police est particulièrement efficace. Alors qu'il assure un asile au prétendant Louis XVIII à Mitau, qu'il prend à son service l'armée de Condé, et qu'il lance son Empire dans une guerre contre la France dans le cadre de la seconde coalition, la situation des Français résidents en Russie reste très difficile et chaque faux pas peut avoir des conséquences funestes. Ce n'est qu'à l'aube du nouveau siècle, lorsque Paul Ier se rapproche de Bonaparte, que la suspicion à l'égard des Français se relâche. Cependant de 1792 à 1799, nombreuses ont été les victimes de ces mesures, qu'elles aient été ou non de véritables sympathisants à la Révolution., Ollivier Julie. Les mesures prises dans l'empire de Russie envers les Français soupçonnés de sympathies révolutionnaires (1792-1799). In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°349, 2007. pp. 105-127.

This paper aims to study Alfred Marshall’s thought under three different angles: in relation to itself, his thought is articulated around a leading line, the edification of an economy of economic and moral well-being of which the author presents the main tools and points out the analytical difficulties. In relation to his predecessors and his contemporaries: Marshall is replaced into the not only economic but intellectual background of the 19 th century; in addition to his scientific contribution, he played an important part in the professionna- lisation and the institutionnalisation of the discipline. In relation to contemporary economics: the history of ideas held his analysis in words of static partial equilibrium, but present research is tending towards other problematics recalled by Marshall, and his analysis in words of surplus, strongly criticized in economic literature, goes on being used practically in public economy., Cet article vise à mettre en perspective la pensée d’Alfred Marshall sous trois angles différents: par rapport à elle-même, sa pensée est articulée autour d’une ligne directrice, la construction d’une économie de bien-être économique et moral, dont sont présentés les principaux outils et sont signalées les difficultés analytiques. Par rapport à celle de ses prédécesseurs et contemporains: Marshall est replacé dans le contexte non seulement économique mais intellectuel du XIX e siècle; outre sa contribution scientifique, il a joué un rôle important dans la professionnalisation et l’institutionnalisation de la discipline. Par rapport à l’économie contemporaine: l’histoire des idées a retenu son analyse en termes d’équilibre partiel statique, mais la recherche actuelle s’oriente sur d’autres problématiques évoquées par Marshall, et son analyse en termes de surplus, fortement attaquée dans la littérature économique, continue à être utilisée en pratique en économie publique., Martinoia Rozenn. L'« ère marshallienne »: équilibre, bien-être et question sociale dans l’Angleterre victorienne. In: Romantisme, 2006, n°133. Économie, économistes. pp. 93-102.

The Grands Boulevards a political space? Although this can hardly be doubted in our age of political demonstrations, this cannot so clearly be said for the Romantic period. The paper thus advances a history of political uses of these places where people otherwise strolled and relaxed, from the Restoration to the Republic (1815-1848). Processions of dissenters gathered during the funerals of opposition leaders. A political language came into being as these ritualized •Paris crossings” progressed, to the point of making the Grands Boulevards a metaphor for public opinion. In the same way, despite great efforts on the part of the July Monarchy, the government was never able to reclaim this site as its sovereign space. The largely mythical identification of the Grands Boulevards with the •people of Paris” thus became solidly rooted in our collective imagination., Les Grands Boulevards, espaces politiques? Si la réponse ne fait guère de doute à l’âge des manifestations contemporaines, il n’en est pas de même pour l’âge romantique. Cet article propose donc une histoire des usages politiques de cet espace de déambulation, entre Restauration et République (1815-1848). Des cortèges contestataires s’y déploient à l’occasion de funérailles de personnalités d’opposition. Un langage d’opposition s’invente au cours de ces «traversées de Paris» ritualisées, au point de faire des Grands Boulevards une métaphore de l’opinion publique. Systématiquement, en dépit d’efforts marqués sous la monarchie de Juillet, les pouvoirs n’arrivent pas à investir cet espace pour en faire un territoire de souveraineté. L’identification, largement mythique, des boulevards et du «peuple de Paris», s’enracine alors durablement., Fureix Emmanuel. Tours de ville frondeurs : les boulevards, la mort et la contestation (1815-1848). In: Romantisme, 2006, n°134. Les grands boulevards. pp. 7-18.

Nowadays citizens are expected to get acquainted with the so many social and economic data diffused by the different media. This information that actually serves to fuel the democratic debate is the natural outcome of an ongoing historic process that was initiated during the 18 th century. This process yet accelerated during the 19 th century. In this paper and thanks to the writings of authors highly representative of their time, we are showing that statistical publications are closely related to the more or less centralised political regimes of the time and to the great economic and social questions that were debated in that century. Statistics appears as •history’s mirror image”, but as far as economics is concerned one must remark that the result is much les convincing. Indeed mathematics and statistics followed a comparatively independent course and they were to be integrated only from mid 20 th century in what is now called econometric models., Aujourd’hui, le citoyen est censé ne pas ignorer les innombrables données économicosociales transmises par les différents médias. Ces informations, qui alimentent le débat démocratique, sont le produit d’une longue histoire qui commence au XVIII e siècle. Mais c’est surtout au XIX e siècle que le mouvement s’accélère. Dans cet article, à partir des écrits d’auteurs particulièrement représentatifs, on montre que les publications statistiques, que ce soit pour leur nombre ou leur objet d’études, sont liées à la nature plus ou moins centralisée des régimes politiques et aux grandes questions économiques et sociales en discussion durant le siècle. La statistique apparaît bien comme le «miroir de l’histoire» mais, en ce qui concerne la science économique, force est de constater que le résultat est moins glorieux. En effet, les statistiques et les mathématiques se sont développées parallèlement et il faudra attendre le milieu du XX e siècle pour qu’elles soient intégrées dans ce qu’on appelle des modèles économétriques., Klotz Gérard. L'Économie saisie par la statistique. In: Romantisme, 2006, n°133. Économie, économistes. pp. 59-69.

Mélanie Traversier, « Turning the Plebs into a People » ; Theatre and Music in Naples in 1799, from the Proclamation of the Neapolitan Republic to the First Restoration For long neglected by historians, the episode of the Neapolitan Republic (23 January- 19 June 1799) reveals political and ideological issues which outlived the brevity of the event. Our aim here is to assess them as reflected in the musical and theatrical practices of Naples which was very much a cultural capital. Private papers, republican news-sheets, records of the Bourbon repression form the archival backbone of this study. At Naples, as elsewhere, the revolutionaries used the theatre as a means of regenerating public opinion and promoting truly popular republican culture. In parallel with the institutional study of political control of the stage, an attempt is made to see how a social group - actors - and also a repertory reacted to political events. Beyond direct instrumentalization ("a republic of hymns"), the historian is faced with manifold indivi- dual and collective strategies aimed at appropriating cultural loci and forms. The Bourbon restoration, which also involved purging the world of the stage, confirms the close and polysémie link between the theatre and the polity, a link forged in the 18th century by the Neapolitan monarchy and which the Republic simply reinforced., Longtemps négligé par l'historiographie, l'épisode de la République napolitaine (23 janvier-19 juin 1799) révèle des enjeux politiques et idéologiques qui dépassent la brièveté de l'événement. On se propose de les mesurer ici à l'aune des pratiques musicales et théâtrales de la métropole méridionale, qui s'impose d'abord comme capitale culturelle. Documents privés, journaux républicains, archives de la répression bourbonienne forment le socle documentaire de cette étude. À Naples comme ailleurs, les Révolutionnaires usent du théâtre comme d'un moyen de régénération de l'esprit public et de promotion d'une véritable culture populaire républicaine. Parallèlement à l'étude institutionnelle du contrôle politique sur les spectacles, on tente de saisir la manière dont un milieu social - celui des artistes - mais aussi un répertoire réagissent à l'événement politique. Au-delà de l'instrumentalisation directe (« une république des hymnes »), c'est à la multiplicité des stratégies individuelles et collectives d'appropriation des lieux et des formes culturels que l'historien est confronté. La Restauration bourbonienne, qui passe aussi par l'épuration des milieux du spectacle, confirme le lien étroit et polysémique entre théâtre et politique - lien noué au XVIIIe siècle par la monarchie napolitaine, et que la République n'a fait que resserrer., Traversier Mélanie. « Transformer la plèbe en peuple ». Théâtre et musique à Naples en 1799, De la proclamation de la République napolitaine à la Première Restauration. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°335, 2004. pp. 37-70.

The argumentation tries to show how is turned over, during the nineteenth century, the hedonist tradition of landscape-garden stemming from the sensibility of Enlightenment. The aim of this paper is to explore some of the roots that link the romantic garden (particularly in Jean Paul and Edgar Poe) to great hypotexts: La Nouvelle Héloïse, Werther or else Paul et Virginie. In surroundings which want to be hedonist, melancholy prevails nevertheless and seems to articulate itself to the religious, artistic, indeed philosophical sublimation of the work of mourning., L'argumentation cherche à montrer comment est retournée, au cours du dix-neuvième siècle, la tradition hédoniste du jardin-paysage issue de la sensibilité des Lumières. Il s'agit d'explorer quelques-unes des racines qui relient le jardin romantique (en particulier chez Jean Paul et Edgar Poe) à ces grands hypotextes que sont La Nouvelle Héloïse, Werther ou encore Paul et Virginie. Dans un cadre qui se veut explicitement hédoniste, la mélancolie prédomine pourtant et semble s'articuler à la sublimation religieuse, artistique, voire philosophique du travail de deuil., Peyrache-Leborgne Dominique. Paradis mélancoliques de Jean Paul à Edgar Poe. In: Romantisme, 2002, n°117. Paysages de la mélancolie. pp. 13-29.

Anne-Marie Berthonneau : On the French "deictic" adjectives prochain and dernier or How to find one's way through time, space and texts This paper analyzes the referential functions of prochain/dernier in their temporal and spatial uses, on the basis of their syntactic properties as adjectives (among which, naturally, their position with respect to the noun). It also covers the relations between prochain and suivant with nouns denoting various kinds of material entities, which may or may not be considered as places. Prochain and dernier do not figure prominently in the littérature on adjectives, because of their non prototypical status. With respect to time, there is a general consensus assuming that they are "deictic", at least when they follow the noun (e.g. la semaine dernière/prochaine), despite the well known fact that dernier is an ordinal adjective. They contrast with (précédent /suivant) which establish reference on the basis of a given reference time (e.g. à Noël ... la semaine précédente/ suivante) rather than on the basis of speech time. Though it is often assumed that time should be analyzed as a transposition of space, the temporal behaviour of prochain and dernier turns out not to be precisely parallel to their spatial uses. Dernier no longer forms a pair with prochain (e.g. Je descends à la station prochaine /*dernière); it functions strictly as an ordinal adjective. Furthermore, suivant is in competition with prochain (e.g. Je descends à la station prochaine/à la prochaine station/à la station suivante), though the two adjectives produce clearly distinct references with respect to time (e.g. la semaine prochaine Ф la semaine suivante). Contrasting the behaviour of these adjectives with respect to time and space is important because it reveals the asymmetry between prochain and dernier, which is hidden if one only considers the temporal uses. It allows one to explain (i) how prochain and dernier come together to form a contrasting pair in their temporal uses, despite the fact that dernier is not an indexical; (ii) why suivant can provide the same referent as prochain with names of material entities, despite the fact that the meanings of the two are radically different. At the end of this journey through months and weeks, stations and times, women, pages and chapters, it will turn out that the differences between space and time are less important than might initially appear, at least if one takes into account a crucial property of temporal entities, namely their lack of salience., Berthonneau Anne-Marie. Prochain/dernier et compagnie. Les adjectifs « déictiques » à l'épreuve de l'espace ou comment circuler dans le temps, l'espace, le texte. In: Langue française, n°136, 2002. L'adjectif sans qualité(s) sous la direction de Catherine Schnedecker. pp. 104-125.

Christiane Marchello-Nizia : Grammaticalisation et évolution des systèmes grammaticaux "Grammaticalization" is defined as the formation of grammatical elements out of lexical units, and the creation of new paradigms. This paper wants to attract attention to a third type of changes, on a more abstract level: the changes which modify the system of distinctions and oppositions on which the paradigms of the language, its grammar, are founded. The author analyzes three changes which have occurred in French from the end of the twelfth century to the sixteenth century: the reorganization of the system of the demonstratives, the replacement of moult by beaucoup and très, and the introduction of new forms in the paradigm of the indefinites. She proposes to explain these changes by the hypothesis that they reflect the introduction in French of a formal and paradigmatic difference between units of first level (nouns, pronouns, verbs) and units of second level (adjectives, determiners, adverbs)., Marchello-Nizia Christiane. Grammaticalisation et évolution des systèmes grammaticaux. In: Langue française, n°130, 2001. La linguistique diachronique : grammaticalisation et sémantique du prototype, sous la direction de Walter De Mulder et Anne Vanderheyden. pp. 33-41.

Annie Bertin : Maintenant : un cas de grammaticalisation ? Maintenant has a temporal-adverbial use, in which it introduces the moment of utterance, and a logical use as "connecteur", where it expresses opposition. It thus seems to have evolved in a way comparable to or, which was used in Old French to refer to the moment of utterance. The first part of the paper shows that the semantic description of maintenant falls within the problematics of grammaticalization and that the evolution of the term can serve as an illustration of the central theses found in the research on grammaticalization. The second part is more descriptive and focuses on the uses of maintenant in Middle French, in order to describe the relation between the deictic value and the other temporal and logical values, and to oppose maintenant to or, following M.L. Ollier, so as to seize the difference between those two terms., Bertin Annie. Maintenant : un cas de graminaticalisation ?. In: Langue française, n°130, 2001. La linguistique diachronique : grammaticalisation et sémantique du prototype, sous la direction de Walter De Mulder et Anne Vanderheyden. pp. 42-64.

This paper revisas Catullus' reception from the point of view of «Decadence». It aims at tracing the influence of Catullus' works on late XlXth century literature. Considered as a victim of a pathological attraction towards Lesbia, the rejected lover is split between body and soul, writing and sex. Using fin de siècle translations of Catullus as well as fin de siècle references to hirn, this article establishes that the decadent interest in Catullus was more acute than has been generally thought. The martyrdom of the «pious poet», despite, or thanks to, the downfall of the Muse (and the parody of the passer poerns), leads to a decadent revival of that almost classical figure. Catullus becomes more than ever the poet of contrasts, the obscene writer of polished poetry in the Alexandrine manner. The scholarly concern for metrical perfection and the technical achievement of his witty poems is of considerabte interest for decadent poetics, as much as his crude poetry., Cet article renouvelle la réception de Catulle dans une perspective décadente, afin de retracer l'influence de l'œuvre catullienne sur la littérature de la fin du XIXe siècle. Considéré comme victime d'une attirance pathologique pour Lesbie, l'amoureux rebuté est partagé entre corps et âme, écriture et sexualité. En utilisant aussi bien des traductions de Catulle que des références fin de siècle, cette étude démontre que l'intérêt de la Décadence pour Catulle était plus important qu'on a bien voulu le dire. Le martyre du «poète pieux», à cause de la décadence de la muse (et des parodies des poèmes sur le moineau), ou grâce à elle, conduit à la renaissance décadente de cette figure plutôt classique. Catulle devient plus que jamais le poète des contrastes, le poète obscène d'une poésie raffinée, à la manière alexandrine. Le souci érudit de la perfection métrique et les prouesses techniques de ses poèmes intéressent au plus haut point la poétique décadente, tout autant que sa poésie obscène., David-de-Palacio Marie-France. Les ciselures de l'amertume : Catulle fin de siècle. In: Romantisme, 2001, n°113. L'Antiquité. pp. 105-116.

Chris Corne : Stative verbs and adjectives in Tayo The lexicon of tayo is French-based whereas its syntax is principally influenced by Kanak languages. In Tayo, there is a small number of pre-posed adjectives, coming distinctly from French since the Kanak languages do not allow such a word-order. Post-posed adjectives are rare. The alternative is a relative clause containing a stative verb, a Kanak pattern. The paper analyzes stative verbs found in the following context le + verb + subject and causative derivation through the use of prefix fe-+ stative verb, another Kanak pattern. Present-day bilingualism (Kanak languages-French) in the Tayo speech community determines a French or a Kanak reading of attributive (pre- and post-posed) and predicative adjectives, and stative verbs. Transfer and retention of lexifier language features are assumed to be the motor processes in the creation and evolution of new vernaculars., Corne Chris. Verbes statifs et adjectifs en tayo. In: Langages, 34ᵉ année, n°138, 2000. Syntaxe des langues créoles [En hommage à Chris Corne] sous la direction de Daniel Véronique. pp. 36-48.

James E. Mcclellan III, The Historiography of a colonial Academy : The Cercle des Philadelphes (1784-1793). This paper investigates the surprisingly rich historiography that has arisen around the Cercle des Philadelphes, the famous colonial academy in old French Saint Domingue (modern Haiti). Through the 1980s, the dominant view envisioned the Cercle as inspired by contemporary Freemasonry, but this interpretation is rejected by most scholars today. Two, more credible historiographical alternatives currently vie for analytical allegiance. One considers the Cercle as an extension of central and colonial government ; the other sees the Cercle emanating from the patriotic initiative of white colonists. This study examines these more recent options. Both are based on interesting evidence, but each has problems, and neither is entirely convincing. A better conclusion suggests that the Cercle simultaneously embodied royalist and patriotic tendencies until the shock- wave of the French and Haitian revolutions smashed this precarious balancing act., Cette communication s'interroge sur l'historiographie qui s'est développée autour du Cercle des Philadelphes, célèbre académie coloniale dans l'ancien Saint-Domingue français. L'interprétation dominante jusqu'aux années 1980, qui voyait dans le Cercle une institution d'inspiration maçonnique, est aujourd'hui abandonnée. Désormais l'analyse historique se heurte à deux alternatives plus crédibles : d'une part, celle qui considère le Cercle comme une émanation de la monarchie et du gouvernement colonial et, d'autre part, celle qui voit dans le Cercle plutôt l'initiative des colons blancs. L'étude proposée examine ces interprétations nouvelles, qui chacune s'appuient sur des arguments intéressants, mais qui n'entraînent pas pleinement la conviction et posent de sérieux problèmes d'interprétation. La conclusion est qu'en réalité le Cercle hésita entre ces différentes orientations et qu'il ne put maintenir cet équilibre précaire face au choc que constitua pour la colonie les Révolutions française et haïtienne., McClellan James Edward. L'historiographie d'une académie coloniale : le Cercle des Philadelphes (1784-1793). In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°320, 2000. pp. 77-88.

Raphaël Bange, A Data Base for a Prosopographical Study: Lamarck's Audience at his Lectures at the National Natural History Museum (1 795-1823) This paper presents the computerised data-base developed in a collective research project aimed at identifying and studying the audience of the naturalist Lamarck, approximately one thousand people who enrolled for the lectures he delivered between 1795 and 1823. Designed to serve as a research-tool and clearing-house, this data-base (soon to be available on the web) reproduces the autographs of all the attendees together with the biographical and bibliographical data gathered for each. It should thus help support an investigation into the audience reached by Lamarck's theories and the ways in which they were disseminated and interpreted, and more broadly, lead to a better understanding of the social and cultural dimension of the transmission of scientific knowledge and the circulation of ideas in France and Europe from the revolutionary period to the Restoration., Cette communication présente la base de données informatisée qui a été élaborée dans le cadre d'un projet de recherche collective visant à identifier et étudier les auditeurs du naturaliste Lamarck, soit environ un millier de personnes figurant sur le registre d'inscription au cours qu'il a professé entre 1795 et 1823. Conçue à la fois comme un outil de travail et un lieu d'échange, cette base de données (prochainement consultable sur internet) reproduit les autographes de tous les auditeurs et regroupe l'ensemble des informations biographiques et bibliographiques ayant pu être réunies sur chacun d'entre eux. Elle sert ainsi de support à une enquête destinée non seulement à mieux connaître l'audience et les modalités de diffusion et d'interprétation des théories lamarckiennes mais aussi, plus généralement, à tenter de restituer dans leur dimension sociale et culturelle la transmission du savoir scientifique et la circulation des idées en France et en Europe depuis l'époque révolutionnaire jusqu'à la Restauration., Bange Raphaël. Base de données pour une étude prosopographique : les auditeurs du cours de Lamarck au Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (1795-1823). In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°320, 2000. pp. 205-211.

This paper tries to define what would have constituted the ground for perception of the Italians in France until the XXth century in the post-evolutionary change in attitude towards foreign languages. The greatest attention is lent to the reviews, which follow the literary actuality on the other side of the Alps and its translations, showing an honourable knowledge of the italian realities. Sainte-Beuve's work on Leopardi, since the beginning of the 1840 centuries, is remarkable. But the blurred aspect of the translation choices, the dichotomy in expression and contents, could only limit this spirit and harm the more complex works by worsening an objective lag between the two literatures. The authors' personalities - more or less romanced - take precedence over the texts, inspite of a trend toward juxta-linear literality (A. Bonneau), more exact than literally loyal, the products of which nevertheless would have inspired writers like Musset, Balzac, Hugo or Baudelaire. So, from new contents, it's the dominant (target) Literature which fills «naturally» this lack with its own form and values, all the more since the rare «translators poets» of the century were not particularily interested in italian letters., L'article s'efforce de saisir dans le renouvellement post-révolutionnaire de l'attitude envers les langues étrangères ce qui va constituer le terreau de la perception des Italiens en France jusqu'au XXe siècle. La plus grande attention est portée aux revues, qui suivent de près l'actualité littéraire de l'autre côté des Alpes et les traductions, qui montrent une connaissance honorable des réalités italiennes. Le travail de Sainte-Beuve sur Leopardi, dès le début des années 1840, est remarquable. Mais le flou dans les choix traductifs, la dichotomie de l'expression et des contenus, ne pouvaient que limiter cet élan et desservir les œuvres les plus complexes en aggravant un décalage objectif entre les deux littératures. La personnalité des auteurs - plus ou moins romancée - prend le pas sur leurs textes, en dépit d'une tendance des traductions vers la littéralité juxtalinéaire (A. Bonneau), plus exacte que littérairement fidèle, dont les produits inspireront pourtant des écrivains comme Musset, Balzac, Hugo ou Baudelaire. C'est donc, à partir de contenus nouveaux, la littérature dominante (d'arrivée) qui comble «naturellement» ce manque par sa forme et ses valeurs, d'autant plus que les rares «poètes traducteurs» du siècle ne se sont pas particulièrement intéressés aux lettres italiennes., Vegliante Jean-Charles. Perception française de l'Italie et traduction de l'italien : histoire d'un malentendu. In: Romantisme, 1999, n°106. Traduire au xixe siècle. pp. 69-81.

This paper analyzes a photo taken by Adrien Tournachon in 1854 representing the very famous actor Deburau, who performed pantomime at the Theater of « Funambules » in Paris at the time, as « Pierrot photographe ». This photo is a kind of allegory of photography itself. Maybe it is also the sign, or the symptom, of a general questioning of « mimesis » in the middle of the nineteenth century, dealing with the connexions between literature, theater, caricature, and photography, at a moment where the ancestral art of actor on stage is giving way to the industrial practice of the photographer., L'article analyse une photographie d'Adrien Tournachon prise en 1854 représentant l'acteur-vedette du Théâtre des Funambules, Deburau, en «Pierrot photographe». Cette photo constitue une sorte d'allégorie de la photographie. Sans doute peut-on l'interpréter aussi comme une interrogation générale de l'époque sur la question de la représentation (littérature, photographie, caricature, théâtre), à un moment où l'art du mime muet laisse la place à la pratique industrielle du photographe., Hamon Philippe. Pierrot photographe. In: Romantisme, 1999, n°105. L'imaginaire photographique. pp. 35-43.

Published in 1851, The House of the Seven Gables stages in 19th century New England a daguerreotypist who unmasks a corrupt and hypocritical judge. Behind this rhetoric of revelation lies an inquiry into modernity, which this paper shows to have a strong political dimension : the daguerreotypist or « sun artist» is both a product and a metaphor of egalitarianism. In view, however, of the deep ambiguities of a character that is simultaneously photographer, sorcerer, and an analogue of the writer, this political reading is in turn correlated with a reflection on photography as a paradoxical emblem for the genre of the romance, defined as a display of illusions., La Maison aux sept pignons de Nathaniel Hawthorne, parue en 1851, met en scène, dans la Nouvelle-Angleterre du XIXe siècle, un daguerréotypiste qui dénonce l'imposture d'un notable corrompu. Derrière cette rhétorique de la révélation se dessine une interrogation sur la modernité dont on examine la dimension politique : le daguerréotypiste, artiste solaire, est produit et métaphore de l'égalitarisme. Mais devant la profonde ambiguïté de ce personnage, à la fois photographe, sorcier, et analogue de l'écrivain, cette lecture politique doit être rapportée à une réflexion sur la photographie comme emblème paradoxal du genre du romance, défini comme espace de déploiement d'illusions., Brunet François. Le «romance» daguerrien de Hawthorne. In: Romantisme, 1999, n°105. L'imaginaire photographique. pp. 85-90.

The question of the great man is found throughout Victor Hugo 's work, from the monarchist odes of the 1820's, to texts written during the Third Republic, from poetry to novel, from theater to political or critical writings. This question concerns the main dimensions of Hugo 's work. To begin with, aesthetics, as grandeur is so prevalent in Hugo 's writing ; secondly, history, as like many historians of his time, Hugo wondered about the individual's powers and limits within a collective destiny, and he viewed centuries, particularly his own, partly with this in mind; politics, as the great, powerful man questioned the impersonality of the modem State, but also questioned and perhaps more importantly, the impersonality of the anonymous community. Finally, psychology, where the question aims to establish whether the great man arises from a full ego, a source of mastery, or on the contrary, does he dissolve into the infinitely great or the infinitesimal ? This paper considers the whole work, in order to draw out the complexity, the evolutions and the implications of a literary reflection on the great man, by a thinker whose death led to the reopening of the Pantheon., La question du grand homme traverse l'œuvre de Hugo, des odes monarchistes des années 1820 aux textes de la Troisième République, de la poésie au roman, du théâtre aux écrits politiques et critiques. Cette question engage les principales dimensions de l'œuvre : esthétique (l'impératif de grandeur si prégnant dans l'écriture hugolienne), historique (comme les historiens de son temps, Hugo interroge la puissance et les limites de l'individualité dans le devenir collectif, et il pense les siècles et le sien en partie grâce à cette interrogation), politique (le grand homme de pouvoir met en cause l'impersonnalité de l'État moderne, mais tout autant la puissance au moins potentielle du collectif anonyme), psychologique (le grand homme relève-t-il d'un moi plein, source de maîtrise, ou au contraire se dissout-il dans l'infiniment grand et l'infiniment petit?)... L'article prend en compte l'œuvre dans son ensemble, afin de dégager les complications, les évolutions et les implications d'une pensée (en littérature) du grand homme, - menée par celui dont la mort provoqua la (re)mise en service du Panthéon., Laurent Franck. La question du grand homme dans l'oeuvre de Victor Hugo. In: Romantisme, 1998, n°100. Le Grand Homme. pp. 63-89.

Carlo Capra, Citizen Verri and the general Bonaparte. Pietro Verri, the well-know Milanese philosopher and economist, was in his old age an enthusiastic supporter of the French Revolution and cooperated in various capacities with the republican government established in Lombardy in May 1796 after the French invasion. This paper outlines his activities and the evolution of his political attitudes in the last year of his life (he died in June 1797), on the basis of unpublished sources which include Verri's letter to Bonaparte published as an appendix., Carlo Capra, Il cittadino Veni e il generale Bonaparte. Pietro Verri, uno degli scrittori e riformisti italiani più significativi del Settecento accolse con entusiasmo la Rivoluzione francese e non negò la sua collaborazione al governo repubblicano stabilitosi a Milano in seguito alla conquista di Bonaparte. Partendo da documenti inediti reperiti sia negli Archivi milanesi sia tra le carte di Pietro Verri (di cui fa parte la lettera a Bonaparte pubblicata in appendice) quest'articolo ricostruisce l'evoluzione delle opinioni politiche dello scrittore nonché lo svolgimento della sua attività nell'ultimo anno della sua esistenza (1796-1797)., Carlo Capra, Le citoyen Verri et le général Bonaparte. Pietro Verri, l'un des plus importants écrivains et réformateurs italiens du xvme siècle, salua avec enthousiasme la Révolution française et ne refusa pas de collaborer avec le gouvernement républicain établi à Milan après la conquête de Bonaparte. À partir de documents inédits repérés dans les Archives milanaises, et parmi les papiers de Verri (dont la lettre à Bonaparte publiée en annexe), l'article retrace l'évolution de ses opinions politiques et le cours de son activité dans la dernière année de sa vie (1796- 1797)., Capra Carlo. Le citoyen Verri et le général Bonaparte. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°313, 1998. L'Italie du Triennio révolutionnaire 1796-1799. pp. 431-448.

Steven Clay, Der Krieg der Federn : Die Provinzpresse und die Politik der politischen Gruppen in Marseille wàhrend des ersten Direktoriums. Das Journal des Marseille von Ferréol Bougeard, das seit dem 23 Prairial des Jahres III3 wieder erschien und der Observateur du Midi von Peyre Ferry, der seit dem 1 Germinal des Jahres IV erschien, repräsentieren auf überdeutliche Weise die beiden Gesichter des Republikanismus unter dem Direktorium in einer großen provenzalischen Hafenstadt : den antiterroristichen Republikanismus im ersten, und den antireaktionären Republikanismus im zweiten. Sie benutzten ein stereotypes Vokabular viel eher als eine Analyse, um die jeweiligen Gegner zu stigmatisieren. Sie wurden jeweils alter- nativ ermutigt durch die Prasenz eines Représentant en mission oder eines militärischen Kommandanten. Das eine wie das andere Journal verschwand nach den Wahlen des Jahres V : der Observateur, weil die « Reaktionäre » sie gewannen, das Journal, weil der « Staatsstreich » des Fructidor deren Resultate wieder umkehrte., Steven Clay, Ink Wars : the provincial press and the politics of factions at Marseille under the first Directory. At the great provincial port of Marseille during the Directory, the two faces of republicanism were apparent. Pure expressions of anti-terrorist republicanism and anti- reactionary republicanism were represented, respectively, by Ferréol Bougeard's Le Journal de Marseille (which reappeared on 23 prairial year III) and Peyre Ferry's L 'Observateur du Midi (appearing on 1 germinal year IV). Both utilized stereotypes rather than analysis in stigmatizing their adversaries and both received encouragement from the presence of some representative on mission or of some military commander. The two papers disappeared after the elections of the year V. L'Observateur vanished because the "reactionaries" won the elections, Le Journal because the « coup d'État » of fructidor reversed the results., Steven Clay, La guerra delle penne : la stampa provinciale e la politico delle fazioni a Marsiglia sotto il primo Direttorio. « Le Journal de Marseille » de Ferréol Bougeard (uscito di nuovo il 23 pratile dell'anno III) e « L'Observateur du Midi » di Peyre Ferry (uscito il primo germinale dell'anno IV), rappresentarono allo stato quasi puro, nel grande porto provenzale, i due volti del repubblicanesimo sotto il Direttorio : repubblicanesimo antiterroristico del primo, repubblicanesimo anti-reazionario del seconde Usando un vocabolario stereo- tipato, piu che l'analisi, per stigmatizzare l'avversario ; alternativamente confortati dalla presenza di tale rappresentante in missione o di tale comandante militare ; l'uno e l'altro scomparirono dopo le elezioni dell'anno V : « L'Observateur » perché le vinsero i « reazionari », « Le Journal » perché il « colpo di Stato » di Fruttidoro ne inverti i risultati., Steven Clay, La guerre des plumes : la presse provinciale et la politique des factions à Marseille sous le premier Directoire. Le Journal de Marseille de Ferréol Bougeard (reparution le 23 prairial an III) et L'Observateur du Midi de Peyre Ferry (parution le 1er germinal an IV), représentèrent à l'état quasiment pur, dans le grand port provençal, les deux visages du républicanisme sous le Directoire : républicanisme antiterroriste du premier, républicanisme antiréactionnaire du second. Utilisant un vocabulaire stéréotypé, plus que l'analyse, pour stigmatiser l'adversaire ; alternativement encouragés par la présence de tel représentant en mission ou de tel commandant militaire, l'un et l'autre disparurent après les élections de l'an V : L'Observateur parce que les « réacteurs » les gagnèrent, Le Journal parce que le « coup d'État » de fructidor en renversa les résultats., Clay Steven. La guerre des plumes : La presse provinciale et la politique de faction sous le Premier Directoire à Marseille, 1796-1797. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°308, 1997. pp. 221-247.

L. Bidermann-pasques, J. Humbley : The Reception of English words in the French Press : Propositions for the Harmonisation of English loan-words The use of foreign words in a French text raises problems, some of which involve spelling. Not all foreign words that appear in newspapers will necessarily become part of the language : far from it. However, they do pose problems for spelling that must be dealt with. From a corpus of neologisms, we examine the reception of various English words as used in a Parisian daily paper, and the problems they pose for French-speaking journalists and correctors. Then, taking as a model English loan words already present in French dictionaries, and examining the main tendencies and principles of the French orthographic system, we propose a number of solutions that could be adopted for the spelling of these words., Biedermann-Pasques Liselotte, Humbley John. La réception de mots anglais dans les journaux français : l'application de quelques principes d'harmonisation graphique. In: Langue française, n°108, 1995. La variation graphique et les rectifications de l'orthographe française (1990) sous la direction de Nina Catach. pp. 57-65.

Zlatka Guentcheva : « Evidential values of the French tense system » A great number of languages encode by means of grammatical markers the speaker's distance with respect to the situation expressed by the proposition : the speaker explicitly signals that his information is derived from general reputation, hearsay, inferences , reasoning. . . Although French is not traditionally thought of as a language endowed with an evidential system, several temporal forms (especially the conditionnel, the passé composé and the présent) can take evidential meanings. This paper presents some comments on the phenomenon., Zlatka Guentcheva. Manifestations de la catégorie du médiatif dans les temps du français. In: Langue française, n°102, 1994. Les sources du savoir et leurs marques linguistiques, sous la direction de Patrick Dendale et Liliane Tasmowski. pp. 8-23.

N. D. Kondratieff and French Economic History or the Unfinished Encounter. In the first part of this paper, I attempt to provide more coherent framework for the expressions used in the study of the long-term movement of the economy, I present the links between terminology and the three stages in the study of long-term movement (observation statistical building and interpretation). In the second part, I discuss the diffusion in France of Kondratieff's work. I try to explain the late awareness of Kondratieff work France. More generally the fact that very few of writings had been available to French researchers until now contributed to partial and limited view of this thinking. In the third part assess the position awarded to work by French Historians and Economists. For most French Historians movements are only price cycles and these cycles start before the industrial revolution Finally examine the more or less important connections between Kondratieff's Theory and the different French schools of Regulation., Escudier Jean-Louis. Kondratieff et l'histoire économique française ou la rencontre inachevée. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 48ᵉ année, N. 2, 1993. pp. 359-383.

Pierre Serna, The cultural origins of apolitical commitment, Antonelle's reading notes. Mayor of Aries during the revolution, deputy at the Legislative, member of the revolutionary tribunal, involved in the Conspiracy for Equality, the Chevalier d'Antonelle left hundreds of papers which were the fruits of his solitary reading between 1782 to 1789. The quantitative and introspective study of all his documents allows us to permeate the interior of his cultural world : he was late in reading the classical writers of the Enlightenment from Locke to Mably, a materialistic sensualist he had a complex worried, pessimistic and masochistic personality. Antonelle believes that man is not naturally free and parodaxically from this conviction he draws his intention to act on the social political scene : man could only but resist the social and political conditions which shape him. The revolutionary practice of Antonelle is directly issued from the Enlightenment culture., Pierre Serna, Aux origines culturelles d'un engagement politique : les notes de lecture d'Antonelle. Le chevalier d'Antonelle — sous la Révolution maire d'Arles, député à la Législative, membre du tribunal révolutionnaire, participant à la Conjuration des Égaux — a laissé plusieurs centaines de feuillets suscités par des lectures effectuées en solitaire entre 1782 et 1789. L'étude quantitative et reflexive de ces documents permet de pénétrer à l'intérieur de l'univers culturel du personnage. Il découvre tardivement les auteurs classiques des Lumières de Locke à Mably, est un matérialiste sensualiste. Elle permet aussi de connaître une personnalité complexe, inquiète, pessimiste, masochiste. Antonelle est convaincu que l'homme n'est pas naturellement libre, et tire paradoxalement de cette conviction sa volonté d'agir sur le plan politique social : l'homme ne peut que résister aux conditions politiques et sociales qui le façonnent. La pratique révolutionnaire d'Antonelle sera fille de cette culture des Lumières., Serna Pierre. Aux origines culturelles d'un engagement politique : les notes de lecture d'Antonelle. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°292, 1993. pp. 169-202.

Marie-Thérèse Bouyssy, Barère : the imaginary salon or the 20tn century. Between 1825 and 1830, Barère exiled in Belgium and living under a pseudonym wrote thousands of papers. Among them was the catalogue of an imaginary salon which would have exhibited 230 paintings. Barère always had a particular interest for art. The author visits this imaginary salon and perceives an aesthetical, moral and political culture close to that of David between 1780-1800. However Barère was convinced that his salon could only be appreciated during the 20th century., Marie-Thérèse Bouyssy, Barère : le salon imaginaire ou le XXe siècle. Entre 1825 et 1830, Barère, proscrit en Belgique et vivant sous un pseudonyme, noircit plusieurs dizaines de milliers de feuilles de papier. Parmi celles-ci, le catalogue d'un salon de peinture imaginaire qui aurait exposé 230 œuvres. Barère avait toujours eu un intérêt prononcé pour les arts. L'auteur visite ce salon imaginaire et y repère une culture esthétique, morale et politique proche de celle de David des années 1780-1800. Cependant Barère était persuadé que ce serait au xxe siècle que ce salon imaginaire pourrait être apprécié., Bouyssy Marie-Thérèse. Barère : Le salon imaginaire ou le XXe siècle. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°292, 1993. pp. 213-236.

An Alternative View : The Gypsies Case in German Camps. It is not possible in the present state of research, to draw up full picture of the fate of Gypsies in occupied Europe, especially in France. In this paper, the author compares testimonies from mostly French deportees with that of Gypsies and places such testimonies in the context of known SS administrative routines. She concludes that Gypsies as they were labeled on the basis of genealogical information never had clear status in the extermination system and that the SS re-labeled individuals accor, Asseo Henriette. Contrepoint : la question tsigane dans les camps allemands. In: Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations. 48ᵉ année, N. 3, 1993. pp. 567-582.

The Neapolitan Nobility. The analysis of the Neapolitan nobility in this paper is focused on two levels through the study of the representations provided by the various segments of the nobility itself (the aristocracy di seggio titled and unlited nobility) during the XVIth and XVIIIth centuries and through the nominative reconstruction of Neapolitan feudality in the mid XVIth century. From this analysis emerges complex and hierarchical social group in which the horizontal dimension of social stratification coexists with phenomena of solidarity and vertical dependence. Family seggio faction mani fest the social forms which allowed the continuity of feudal power in the early modern era regardless of the political change represented by the Spanish domination. The turning point in the social history of the Neapolitan nobility takes place in the and with the growing split between the feudal nobility and the nobility di seg gio and the rise of new social groups and thus opens the way to the qualitative transformation of the nobility studied by Villari., Visceglia Maria Antonietta, Revel Judith. Un groupe social ambigu. Organisation, stratégies et représentations de la noblesse napolitaine, XVIe-XVIIe siècles. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 48ᵉ année, N. 4, 1993. pp. 819-851.

The Art Market in the Netherlands XVth and XVIth Centuries. This paper explores various channels through which artists marketed their wares in the Netherlands in the 15th and 16th centuries. Of these the principal were for the artist to work directly on order for the customer or to produce wares for some as yet unknown customer "on spec". The different economic factors that would incline transactions in works of art toward either of these channels are explored in detail including the cost advantages of mechanical reproduction for works destined to be placed on an anonymous market number of hybrid forms works that are brought to market partially completed and then finished on orders are also considered. The role of fairs in marketing sculpted retables mainly for an anonymous clientele is analysed in terms of these choices., Montias John Michael. Le marché de l'art aux Pays-Bas, XVe et XVIe siècles. In: Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations. 48ᵉ année, N. 6, 1993. pp. 1541-1563.

Agricultural Surplus and Merchant Capital in Nineteenth-Century Greece. The paper examines the process of circulation of merchant capital in relation to the formation of urban markets in nineteenth-century Greece. The circulation process is seen in conjunction with existing social relations and is approached on the basis of two of the major agricultural products of the time namely currants and corn. The formation of urban markets is approached rom the point of view of merchant capital circulation on the one hand of the state of European markets on the other. The gist of the argument is that Greek urban markets were in the process of being modelled upon the European pattern yet at the same time formed only part of merchant capital. The latter encompassed two different social systems - one based on proto-market economy, the other on the market economy - and hence developed according to two quite different types of historical time., Pizanias Petros. Surplus agricole et circulation du capital commercial : la Grèce au XIXe siècle. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 47ᵉ année, N. 2, 1992. pp. 293-314.

Commynes' history. Pragmatics and memory in the political realm. The fact that certain highly significant historically lived practices become subject to narrativization by the end of the Middle Ages points to growing need for structuring knowledge not yet theorized. Professionals practitioners, wishing to render their readers yet another service develop new applied methods of teaching history move by move. This paper analyzes the nature of this new writing experiment on the part of authors who are not literary professionals but who function in specific professional context that of diplomacy and who remain ulto privileged model that of Commynes, Memoires. To represent to propagate what is both know-how and an ars vivendi requires specific kind of writing on the margins of established representations of power It will become clear that Commynes's own manner of dissenting rom established cultural references leads to redefinition of historical strategies in the literary and the political field Middle Ages on the wane., Blanchard Joël. L'histoire commynienne. Pragmatique et mémoire dans l'ordre politique. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 46ᵉ année, N. 5, 1991. pp. 1071-1105.

Christophe Paljerse : The Revolution of Natural Law in the « Révolutions de Paris», July 1789-September 1790. This article studies the characteristics of the ideology reflected in the newspaper Révolutions de Paris during the period that coincided with Elysée Loustallot's work on the paper. The author demonstrates the unity around the theme of natural law which was a constant reference both in the analysis of the revolutionary phenomenon and in the statement of a plan for future society. The Revolution was the result of the demands of man's natural freedom over the ruins of despotism ; the illegal state of religious, political and patriarchal domination led to generalized corruption. Impregnated with the principle of man's natural freedom, the Revolution was to bring about the reign of philosophy. In order to fulfill this project of regeneration, it was to rely on the common interest, the very foundation of the reign of the law. This meant that the political regime had to be concerned with communal democracy, with social justice and should be wary of any encroachments by the army or the judiciary ; in the same way it was to insure that the souvereignty of the legislative prevailed over the executive so that by raising civic spirit it could re-establish high morals., Christophe Paoerse : La Révolution du droit naturel dans les «Révolutions de Paris», juillet 1789-septembre 1790. Cet article analyse les traits de l'idéologie reflétée dans le journal des « Révolutions de Paris » durant la séquence qui correspond à l'activité d'Elysée Loustallot. H en fait apparaître l'unité autour du thème du droit naturel, référence constante, tant dans l'analyse du phénomène révolutionnaire que dans renonciation d'un projet de société. La Révolution s'affirme comme revendication de la liberté naturelle de l'homme, sur les ruines du despotisme, rapport illégal de domination religieuse, politique et patriarcale entraînant une corruption généralisée. Elle doit amener le règne de la philosophie en s'imprégnant du principe de liberté naturelle de l'homme. Pour réaliser cette régénération, elle doit s'appuyer sur l'intérêt commun garant du règne de la loi. Ce qui suppose un régime politique soucieux de démocratie communale, de justice sociale, attentif aux empiétements de l'armée et de l'appareil judiciaire, faisant prévaloir la souveraineté du législatif sur l'exécutif, apte enfin à rétablir les mœurs en élevant l'esprit public., Palierse Christophe. La Révolution du droit naturel dans les Révolutions de Paris (juillet 1789-septembre 1790). In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°285, 1991. pp. 353-375.

Representation : the word, the thought, the thing. The paper analyzes the implications of the mannikins ("representations") which were displayed in the funerals of French and English kings since the 14th and 15th centuries. These mannikins can be connected to much longer historical series showing how in different cultural contexts images could act as mediators with the beyond In medieval Europe the status of images closely connected on one hand to the condemna tion of idolatry on the other to the veneration of relics was deeply affected by the cru cial role attributed more and more to the eucharist. The disenchantement of the images triggered by this process was precondition of the deep changes which emerged in the 13th and 14th centuries both in painting and sculpture., Ginzburg Carlo. Représentation : le mot, l'idée, la chose. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 46ᵉ année, N. 6, 1991. pp. 1219-1234.

Harness in Antiquity: The Prestige of Scientific Error. The work of Commander Lefebvre des Noettes and particular his hypothesis of the defectiveness of ancient harnesses, was very influential even though his analysis was technically false. After having situated the commander- a local erudite who took advantage of his early retirement to specialize in an area that had been little explored up until that time- in historical context, this article takes up the refutations that began in 1960 and became especially forceful due to the work of J.Spruytte in 1977. There was not one, but rather several ancient harnesses and the evolution towards modern techniques (shafts, collars, and breast harnesses) began in Antiquity.The commander's theories were accepted for so long and their refutation so little recognized in France because they reinforced the idea of "antiquity's technical block". The paper investi gates the birth of this concept and the reasons why it encountered so much success in France. The evolution of different historical schools giving special place to ancient history allows us to better understand why people pondered the causes of "technical block" without throwing the concept itself into question. It is as if ancient history had to have particular status and could not be considered part of the long procession of history., Amouretti Marie-Claire. L'attelage dans l'Antiquité. Le prestige d'une erreur scientifique. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 46ᵉ année, N. 1, 1991. pp. 219-232.

Silence Denial Mythmaking : The Memory of Great Defeat in Portuguese Culture. Remembrance and oblivion are the two facets of collective memory that have so far attracted the attention of historians and social scientists. In this paper the author sug gests that both these processes should be associated with others such as repression, lying mythmaking, etc. She elaborates her assumption through case study of a national tragedy- the traumatic Portuguese defeat in the Battle of the Three Kings of 1578- in Portuguese culture from the XVIth century to the present., Valensi Lucette. Silence, dénégation, affabulation : le souvenir d'une grande défaite dans la culture portugaise. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 46ᵉ année, N. 1, 1991. pp. 3-24.

Economic Development and Human Height in France, XIXth-XXth Centuries. The first section of this paper deals with the historical French debate on the factors explaining variations human height. Villermé stated already in 1829 the existence of a close relationship between height of conscripts and material well-being. His thesis is now generally accepted by scholars in medicine and anthropology. Based on this idea a mathematical model is developed in the second section, in which variations in median height of french conscripts over the periode 1835-1913 are predicted with great accuracy by a lagged series of per capita income. Finally the precision of the model enables an estimation of median height offrench conscripts for the period 1914-1986, a period for which no annual height series were available, but for which per capita income figures exist. Confronted with earlier estimates the results of the model proof to be very pre cise for period of more than half a century., Meerten Michiel Alexander. Développement économique et stature en France, XIXe-XXe siècles. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 45ᵉ année, N. 3, 1990. pp. 755-777.

Tepeaca: A Local Mexican Market at the End of the 19th Century. This paper takes on the task of qualifying the dominant view in historiography that haciendas and corn played predominant roles in supplying Central Mexican markets and in consumption. Herein we try, without minimizing the general validity of this view, to shed light on the multiform structures and complexity of markets and con- sumption in New-Spain. Our study allows us to show that, while the haciendas indeed playedan important part, Indians, half-breeds and poor Spaniards competed with them for market shares; these social groups controlled a great many resources in the region. Secondly, while corn was indeed the most notable product on the local market, animal herds also played a major role in the supplying of food and raw materials in this provincial town, so representative of other small and medium-sized markets in Central Mexico., Garavaglia Juan Carlos, Grosso Juan Carlos. Marchands, hacendados et paysans à Tepeaca. Un marché local mexicain à la fin du XVIIIe siècle. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 44ᵉ année, N. 3, 1989. pp. 553-580.

The age at first menstruation (age at menarche) declined in France from 15.9 years in 1750-1799, to 15.5 in 1800-1849, 15.1 in 1850-1899, reaching finally 13.9 in 1900-1950. This decrease of two full years across two centuries probably occurred as a result of improvements in the health of the female population, rather than as a result of a greater proportion of the female population living in cities. There is in fact no big difference between the age of puberty in big cities and small towns. Menarcheal age in Paris declines rather late. The most interesting difference this study uncovers is between social classes : towards mid-nineteenth century, young women from middle-class families reached menarche about half a year earlier than women from working-class families, which suggests how important diet was. We may be able to use data on age at menarche as a guide to changes over time in the standard of living in different social classes and in different provinces. For the years before 1850 the paper relies heavily on local doctors' estimates of the mean age at menarche, published in "medical topographies". After 1850 systematic interview surveys done in clinical settings became increasingly available., Shorter Edward. L'âge des premières règles en France, 1750-1950. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 36ᵉ année, N. 3, 1981. pp. 495-511.

study in regional anthropopology The soda history of Saguenay in 19th and 20th centuries Gerard BOUCHARD There can be no doubt that between 1960 and 1970 the advances made in social history particularly in France did not entirely match expectations To start with the method of reconstructing the family has been used solely for demographic purposes In addition only sporadic use has been made of the continual advances in computer techniques and data retrieval and analysis methods have not always been able to match the scope of the more comprehensive problematic issues Likewise close-knit and stable research teams have been the exception rather than the rule These are some of the many reasons why it seemed worthwhile undertaking collective experiment in regional history combining all the material and personal conditions required to implement genuinely interdisciplinary research and covering the main lines followed in social history This project which has been in progress since 1972 at the University of Quebec-Chicoutimi has now become designated as the Social history project on the population of Saguenay In this paper the co-ordinator presents the aims and methods of this project and the results thus far achieved, Bouchard Gérard. Un essai d'anthropologie régionale : l'histoire sociale du Saguenay aux XIXe et XXe siècles. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 34ᵉ année, N. 1, 1979. pp. 106-125.

This study analyses the impact of the French Revolution on the provincial press beginning the end of censorship in 1789. A number of elements of continuing life of newspapers (44 existed under the Ancien Régime) and the same production techniques. But discontinuity is found in the proliferation of new titles (a thousand different newpapers in the provinces for the whole revolutionary period). The papers became notably political, mirroring the conflicts on the national scale, and bringing forth a new kind of journalist. Brumaire was to challenge brutally all these new developments., L'auteur analyse l'impact de la Révolution française sur la presse provinciale, à partir de la disparition de la censure en 1789. Un certain nombre d'éléments de continuité apparaissent : continuité des journaux (44 sous l'Ancien Régime), continuité dans les techniques de production. Mais la rupture s'inscrit dans la prolifération des nouveaux titres (un millier de journaux en province pour toute la période révolutionnaire). Surtout ces feuilles se sont politisées, reflétant les affrontements nationaux, suscitant un nouveau type de journalistes. Autant de nouveautés que Brumaire remettra brutalement en cause., Gough Hugh. Continuité ou rupture ? Les transformations structurelles de la presse provinciale (1789-1799).. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°273, 1988. pp. 247-253.

Trying geography of jacobinism in the west. The question set by this research takes its ground on the eight departments of Low Normandy and Maine, with expatiations in western France, from Brittany to Vendée, and inversely deeper soundings in some places (Sarthe). Starting from a reflexion on the societies network, faced to the density of the town network, one then considers which are the grounds of provincial jacobinism, esteemed from affiliations, contacts and subscriptions for parisian papers. One enquires on jacobin pratice from records of debates. One concludes taking into account «space tangles » which allow to lay down grounds for a geography of Revolution in the West, known as rebellious., L’interrogation formulée par cette recherche prend pour base les huit départements de la Basse Normandie et du Maine, sans s’interdire des extrapolations à la France de l’Ouest de la Bretagne à la Vendée, et inversement des sondages plus approfondis sur certains sites (la Sarthe). Partant d’une réflexion sur le réseau des sociétés, confronté à la densité du réseau urbain, on s’interroge ensuite sur les fondements du jacobinisme provincial, apprécié à partir des affiliations, des contacts et des abonnements à la presse parisienne. On pose la question de la pratique jacobine, à partir des registres de délibérations. On conclut sur la prise en compte des «entrelacements d’espaces» qui permettent de poser les bases d’une géopolitique de la Révolution dans cet Ouest réputé rebelle., Peyrard Christine. La géopolitique jacobine à l’épreuve de l’Ouest. In: Annales historiques de la Révolution française, n°266, 1986. pp. 448-476.

Proto-industrialization, Proto-industry and De-industrialization : An Economic Analysis. The paper develops a simple micro-economic model of the semi-subsistence family-farm and uses it to analyze the proto-industrialization and de-industrialization processes. It claims that regional proto-industrialization can be understood largely in terms of regional differences in population pressure, the commercialization of agriculture, and the development of national and international markets. But proto-industry was unable to compete with the more productive modern factories. Thus the industrial revolution, which introduced modern factories only certain regions, is seen as one possible cause of regional de-industrialization., Ho Samuel P. S., Durocher Christine. Protoindustrialisation, protofabriques et désindustrialisation : une analyse économique. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 39ᵉ année, N. 5, 1984. pp. 882-895.

Models of Demand under the Ancient Regime. This article studies demand for consumer products in a pre-industrial economy. This is done in two stages: firstly a certain number of hypotheses are presented and examined which should allow us to grasp the exchange mechanisms frorn which the principles of the functioning of demand are deduced. These deductions are then compared with statistical data comprising a large number of runs. This comparison brings to light a number of explanatory regularities which constitute a framework representing the functioning of certain aspects of the market. This paper has two goals: (1) to find results concerning the determination of prices and the amounts demanded as well as the cause of certain cyclical fluctuations, and (2) to propose a more analytic approach to this economic conjoncture which can complete the empirical investigation by elucidating problems which the latter was able to pose but not resolve., Grenier Jean-Yves. Modèles de la demande sous l'Ancien Régime. In: Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations. 42ᵉ année, N. 3, 1987. pp. 497-527.