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This paper examines adjustment disorders in school, focusing on their relationship with problems of nonattendance at school and learned helplessness. First, I discuss the relationship between the problems of nonattendance at school and adjustment disorder by examining the results of a survey on the causes of nonattendance and those of a survey on the actual conditions of educational support centers (adjustment guidance classes) conducted by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), and previous research on the actual conditions of students with adjustment disorder in special support schools for students with health impairments. This paper also discusses the stressors of students with adjustment disorders who do not attend school. Additionally, the following points are outlined: (1) problems with friendships and poor learning are often assumed to be stressors, (2) it is important to organize stressors carefully as they are sometimes difficult to identify, (3) it is important to adjust the environment to reduce stressors, and (4) points for individual intervention. Next, I discuss the relationship between learned helplessness and adjustment disorder based on previous studies. Assuming that learned helplessness is one of the factors behind students’ apathy and anxiety, I outline the mechanisms that give rise to learned helplessness and the methods of intervention for students with learned helplessness. Specifically, I discuss the importance of environmental adjustments and interventions that enable students with learned helplessness to have experiences of contingency. Finally, the importance of preventive psychoeducation is discussed, confirming that various events at school can be stressors that lead to adjustment disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual problems affect the way people live, and, as I show, how they are classified in DSM-5 and ICD-11. The term “gender identity disorder”used in DSM-IV and ICD10 has been changed to “gender dysphoria” in DSM-5 and“gender incongruence”in ICD11. At the same time, the concepts contained therein also changed. The new conceptualization intends to separate sexual diversity from the concept of mental illness, avoid stigma, and make it easier for those concerned to access medical services. In this paper, I trace the change process of each version of DSM and ICD and describe the comparison between DSM-5 and ICD-11. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender role in children and adolescents with diverse gender and sexual development. I review 1) findings in twin studies on the genetic and environmental interplay of gender and sexual development, 2) clinical research of children and adolescents with gender dysphoria, and 3) theoretical explanation for gender and sexuality on developmental psychology. The findings include: 1) Along with the course of psychological development, genetic contribution for gender identity generally decreased. Many studies indicated that childhood gender behavior had a stronger correlation with later sexual orientation than gender identity. It is also suggested that a shared genetic background underlies childhood gender atypical behavior and sexual orientation. 2) The link between childhood gender behavior and later sexual orientation was also supported by clinical research. 3) Previous developmental psychology studies revealed that children would develop gender constancy before gender identity formation. Psychological crisis in gender identity becomes most evident after puberty. In conclusion, the trajectory of gender and sexuality may vary substantially from individual to individual, reflecting diverse genetic and environmental factors. Thus, it is recommended that a mental health provider delivers a flexible perspective of gender and sexuality to children and adolescents, their parents, and other people concerned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family history is not only a valuable source of information for health-care providers, but also an important topic for families. Many families are concerned about genetic factors associated with psychiatric disorders because most disorders occur at a young age, with half of patients diagnosed before the age of 14 and two-thirds before the age of 24. This paper presents a case in which genetic counseling was given to the patient’s mother dealing with the family risk of developing psychiatric disorders at the time of initial presentation. The patient was a male student at a junior high school for special need with the chief complaint of temper tantrums. The patient’s mother, who accompanied him, expressed concern about the patient’s sister inheriting a mental disorder given that the patient’s father had recently been diagnosed with bipolar disorder and that her paternal relatives had multiple mental disorders. After interviewing the mother about each family member’s background and personality, the author explained that there was no causative gene that clearly defines psychiatric disorders and that most psychiatric disorders are multifactorial, meaning that they are caused or not by the interaction of a predisposition defined by a myriad of genetic factors with chance on a variety of environmental factors. We then discussed the risk of a patient’s sister developing a psychiatric disorder based on her family history. Through these interactions, the mother regained her affection for her husband and his relatives, and this seemed to reduce her initial irritation. Psychiatric disorders can emerge in anyone. According to a recent prospective cohort study, more than 80％ of people meet the diagnostic criteria for a psychiatric disorder by the age of 45 years. The author hopes that this article could help reduce the barriers to talking about genetics in clinical child psychiatry settings and that patients and their families will feel more inclined to listen when the topic of genetics is brought up in consultation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A psychiatric evaluation was conducted on an adolescent with autism spectrum disorder, who had committed serious crimes. This paper includes the evaluation result and a discussion. At the age of 16, he was charged with the attempted murder of two girls. The motive was the pursuit of sexual excitement. He was diagnosed for autism spectrum disorder, categorized into the aloof type based on Wing & Gould subtypes. He was also diagnosed for conduct disorder according to operational diagnostic criteria, as well as sexual perversion and inversion. The adolescent had a strong aloof type tendency, which encouraged his individual actions and did not hinder him from narrowing his one-sided interests. Regarding his family environment, his parents had not paid much attention to his behaviour. His problematic behaviour that was created and promoted by personal factors was then further fueled by parental neglect, and as a result, the attempted murders took place. This paper mainly focuses on the significant influence of the aloof type of autism spectrum disorder on the likelihood of committing crimes and the importance of attentive environment for adolescents to prevent problematic behaviour. A clinical question has arisen, in which the aloof type of autism spectrum disorder may be a risk factor for crimes, hence further studies are needed. In conclusion, psychiatric evaluation of adolescents should not only consider their accountability but the circumstances surrounding their nurturing environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is considered for children and adolescents with eating disorders (ED) when family-based treatment (FBT), the first-line treatment, is unacceptable to patients and families, is contraindicated for some reasons, or is ineffective. Evidence is accumulating on the use of enhanced CBT (CBT-E), which was designed to treat patients with ED. CBT-E is based on a transdiagnostic perspective that patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa have a core common psychopathology of over-evaluating eating, shape, weight, and their control. This psychopathology is expressed through restricted food intake, low body weight, overeating, over-exercise, and vomiting. Although CBT-E was designed for treating adults with ED, some recent studies have reported the effectiveness of CBT-E in children and adolescents with ED. The aim of this paper is to give a brief overview of the theoretical background of CBT-E, examine previous studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of CBT-E for children and adolescents with ED, provide an outline of CBT-E, and present a case study using a CBT-E approach in an inpatient setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious mental disorder with the highest mortality rate among all mental disorders. Family based treatment (FBT) is a manualized, outpatient treatment for AN developed by Lock and Le Grange. FBT considers parents the most important treatment resource, involves all family members living together, and focuses on early weight restoration. Currently, FBT is the most evidence-based treatment for AN in children and adolescents and is considered first-line treatment by major guidelines, including the NICE guideline. FBT is considered the best treatment for children and adolescents under the age of 19 and with duration of illness of less than 3 years. The duration of treatment varies from 6 to 12 months, divided into three phases. In the first phase, parents are responsible for refeeding and weight restoration. In the second stage, parents return control of eating back to the adolescent. The third phase promotes the adolescent’s developmental path. This paper outlined the procedures for implementing FBT. In addition, taking into consideration the Japanese medical system and gender role culture, where it is difficult to secure time for family therapy in an outpatient setting, we discussed the possibility of starting FBT during hospitalization, allowing for some non-participation of the father, and shortening the session time to make it easier to implement FBT in Japan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eating disorders have a high prevalence and high risk of death from anorexia nervosa. In addition, although it is desirable to prevent extreme malnutrition and chronicity, it is difficult to establish therapeutic relationships to the degree necessary for effective psychiatric treatment. Although it is difficult to establish therapeutic relationships to the degree necessary for effective psychiatric treatment. and for understanding and treating eating disorders, either in childhood or adulthood. In addition, consistency in understanding and dealing with children’s mental states, itself, is necessary. This paper addresses the differences between, and precautions with children, adolescents and adults in the treatment of eating disorders, especially around establishing therapeutic relationships with patients and families, and addressing personality disorders, substance use disorders, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), avoid and/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), and the empirical evidence for treatment. In the treatment of eating disorders, regardless of age, the patient’s efforts are viewed from the perspective of what the patient is experiencing and what he or she can do to recover. While therapists may ultimately wish to establish a caring and helpful relationship, it is important to resolutely confront the symptoms of eating disorders in order to save lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substance relapse prevention guidance in Japanese correction institutions was previously created based on the “crime model”. However, after a partial probation system was enforced in June 2016, the guidance was fully revised into a new program incorporating the “illness model”, aiming to increase awareness of the importance of receiving continuous treatment and assistance for recovery from substance dependence. Moreover, an implementation of a standardized program started in all correction institutions nation-side since April 2017, which helps ensure the quality of substance relapse prevention guidance. However, treatments in correction institutions had been generally designed for male inmates. Therefore, further discussion is needed to cater for female inmates, whose treatments have been tailored individually based on both personality traits and the capability of their institutions.   This paper reports a case study, in which a female inmate attended the program before the full operation of the guidance program and follow-up interviews. The report discusses the difficulties for female inmates to receive appropriate treatment and support after their release from the correction institutions, and care for the victim experience of female inmates and the attitude of the support providers.   In this case study, it was initially observed that the female inmate hesitated to participate in the program. However, through interactions with a local psychiatrist, she started speaking about her dilemma about substance use and her abused childhood experiences and started to change her attitude toward seeking support. These positive changes in the female inmate suggest that reducing inmatesʼ distrust in support providers and working to deal with their abused experiences could facilitate recovery of the inmates from their substance dependence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the spread of smart¬phones has given children and adolescents easy access to the Internet and games. Inter¬net addiction can cause poor academic achievement and may lead to truancy, which could progress on to complete social with¬drawal—a psychological condition known as hiki.komori” in Japanese. Intervention for hikikomori begins with family support or in¬dividual therapy, followed by support in cre¬ating places the individual can find a sense of belonging (i.basho), and on to learning/work support aimed at increasing social participa¬tion. On the other hand, associations between Internet addiction and developmental disor¬ders have been reported, for which cognitive behavior therapy and treatment camps are being incorporated for treatment. However, there are many regions that are as yet un¬equipped to offer such treatment and sup¬port. This paper provides an overview of ex¬isting literature on the association between hikikomori and Internet addiction, alongside report on the author’s regional approach to these issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is defined as deliberately, superiicially and directly in¬juring one's own body with nonsuicidal intent, such as for reducing emotional distress, com¬municating with or manipulating others. Al¬though this behavior had been considered a symptom of borderline personality disorder (BPD)up to DSM-IV-TR, it has come to be recognized as a deviated behavior indepen¬dent of BPD since the DSM-5. This transition represents change in the therapeutic concept, making NSSI a direct target of treatment, more than merely an element in “limit set¬ting.” This paper reviews the historical chang¬es in NSSI conceptions, discussed in associa¬tion with addiction, suicide, and the strengths and weaknesses of the DSM-5 nonsuicidal self-injury category. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 20-plus years since emergence of the concept of internet addiction, whether it is simply a social phenomenon or a medical condition requiring medical intervention has been a point of controversy and debate. However, following inclusion of internet gaming disorder or gaming disorder in the DSM-5 and ICD-11, the concept has become a focus of much attention. Given the fact, we conducted a survey on the state and cases of internet game addiction encountered at university hospitals. In urban areas, about 25% of the patients using the internet primarily for game playing fell in the problematic internet user category, and about 8% in the pathological user group. Patients corresponding to the problematic and pathological internet user groups were noted having relatively high rates of background anxiety/depression symptoms, school refusal, and substance abuse including smoking and drinking. Moreover, the problematic and pathological internet users showed greater deterioration in overall daily living functioning, and problems regarding peer relationships after school hours compared to normal internet users. From these results, addiction tendencies to internet gaming were regarded as possible indication of underlying psychosocial factors requiring medical intervention, where stepby- step therapy tailored to the characteristics of each individual and their families were regarded as the realistic approach for actual treatment and support. This paper introduces two such cases experienced in the university hospital setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forensic or investigative interviews are methods of eliciting as much accurate information as possible at minimum psychological burden from alleged victims and witnesses. The present paper describes the background and current situation regarding use of the forensic interview on children in Japan. Starting with a review on how the forensic interview was developed in the West, how it was brought into Japan, and how it is currently being used in our country, the aim, characteristics, and general procedure of the forensic interview were described. In particular, that （1） the aim of the forensic interview is to investigate what happened to a child, as opposed to psychological counseling or therapy, （2） emphasis is on the use of open-ended questions to elicit as much and as accurate information as possible, （3） the structured interview is designed to maximize extraction of free narrative, and （4） interviews are conducted by a multidisciplinary team and videotaped to reduce the number of interviews and minimize secondary trauma. Findings were presented from studies showing efficacy of open-ended questions compared to closed questions in eliciting more accurate information of greater credibility from children's testimonies. In closing, the recent collaboration between the Child Guidance Centers, Police, and Prosecutor's Office in Japan was described, alongside emphasis on the need for further collaboration with professionals in medical care as well as clinical psychology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forensic psychiatry encompasses broad fields of research and practice ─ from psychiatric evaluation, criminology, ethical issues related to involuntary admission, to protection of children’s rights in the community, school, and home. This paper first introduces the significance of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Second, Japan’s childrelated laws including the Child Welfare Act, the Child Abuse Prevention Act, and the Juvenile Act are reviewed, extending to discussion of issues surrounding the Mental Health and Welfare Law, from the perspective of a child’s capacity to consent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public recognition and acceptance of the concept of autism spectrum disorder （ASD） has been a development over the past thirty years, during which we have come to see growing media focus on possible ASD involvement in criminal cases. Criminal cases of ASD are also being reported in the medical journals. While these anecdotal reports underline the affinity between ASD and crime, scientific evidence upholding this association is rare. This paper reviews the findings available to date on the association between ASD and crime, alongside discussion on the understanding and management of the risks involved, the needs for support, and further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to a report by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology （2012）, about 4-7％ of children enrolled in the regular compulsory education school system in Japan are suspected of having some form of learning disability （LD）. However, only about half those children have been provided with additional support. In general, educational support starts with the identification of children with LD using standardized tests. It is regrettable that few such tests for LD are available for children in Japan. Implementing the Response to Intervention model is a possible alternative in the school setting, although it would require additional training of teaching staff to enhance their skills for supporting children with LD. Within the current framework of special education, children with LD alone can only be enrolled in regular classes, with access to additional support from special needs education teachers in special resource classrooms in schools allocated such staff. There are two possible courses of support. One is training in reading, writing and calculating. The other is provision of augmentative and alternative tools as a measure of reasonable accommodation of individual difficulties. This paper describes some such ways of support through presentation of a fictional case. And last, recognizing the importance of diversity in the classroom was emphasized for the successful provision of effective support to children with LD in the regular classroom setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2014 promoted investigations in support of “reasonable accommodation” for persons with disabilities in Japan, including development of the legal foundations. This paper overviews the circumstances surrounding reasonable accommodation in present-day Japan, and examines the key issues of accommodation affecting people with specific learning disorders. Further, the role of medical institutions to ensure appropriate application of reasonable accommodation for persons with specific learning disorders are discussed in terms of diagnostic concerns, and recommendations regarding psychoeducation, environmental coordination and adjustment for these individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning disorders （LD） refer to deficits in basic academic skills such as reading, writing, calculating and mathematical reasoning, while developmental coordination disorder （DCD） is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting motor coordination. In addition, although many children suffer from problems with processing of visual data, there is no diagnosis corresponding to this aspect to date. DCD and visual problems as well as LD are matters of brain development with negative impact on academic performance that often occur together. Thus, it is important to recognize DCD as an independent factor in learning difficulties alongside others such as attention deficit, and to determine the factor （s） responsible for the difficulty being experienced by each child, as the first step to providing appropriate support. This paper outlines DCD, visual processing issues, effects on learning, as well as their relationship to LD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of children living in child care homes today have experienced abuse, for which they exhibit various symptoms of trauma beyond the understanding of most care workers as well as the children themselves, leaving them with a sense of deepening powerlessness and isolation. The Osaka Prefecture Child Family Center has started incorporating trauma-informed care into the child welfare system. This paper reports on results from a survey on the efficacy of continual training for clinical psychologists, which showed meaningful change in both their consciousness and clinical competence. The results indicated the importance of continual multi-stage training to empower clinical psychologists in providing trauma-informed care to the victims of child abuse aiming for the construction of a sustainable system of support capable of providing children with safety and protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to review: the definition of sexual abuse in children, multi-disciplinary team （MDT） networks responding to cases of child sexual abuse, minimum knowledge required of the professionals working with child sexual abuse, and the Child Advocacy Center （CAC） model recognized as the global standard of MDT response to child sexual abuse in the developed nations. The CAC model constructed by the National Children's Alliance featuring both intervention and treatment functions lists 10 criteria for accreditation as CACs: 1） MDTs bridging professionals in medical care, welfare, and law enforcement, 2） Cultural diversity and problem-solving competency, 3） Forensic interview, 4） Victim support and advocacy, 5） Comprehensive medical evaluation, 6） Mental health support, 7） Case review by the MDT, 8） Case tracking, 9） Organizational capabilities （including training）, and 10） Child-focused orientation. The development of such networks in Japan must start with the establishment of a framework to facilitate and promote the construction of MDTs to integrate the professionals responding to child sexual abuse within the various medical, welfare, and judicial agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of evaluating and treating children who have been subject to abuse and neglect from the standpoint of trauma is being underscored by growing international recognition and emphasis. Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy （TF-CBT） is an evidence-based, first line treatment program for abused children, for which feasibility studies on implementation have also been conducted in Japan. This paper introduces the theory and structure of TF-CBT, presents a case treated by TF-CBT in Japan, alongside discussion of the importance of PTSD assessment and trauma treatment in caring for victims of child abuse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a girl with anorexia nervosa in long-term hospitalization. Treatment progress fluctuated greatly due to severe psychopathology of anorexia nervosa and perfectionism. However, she gradually regained both mental and physical health, and an independence of spirit befitting her age. The process of symptom formation are discussed alongside the psychopathology that underlay the need for extensive hospitalization. Furthermore, the significance of multiple functional child and adolescent psychiatric wards are discussed, not only in terms of physical management and life protection, but as an environment for nurturing basic trust with medical staff, and interacting with peer-groups. Moreover, the implementation of family therapy allowing the therapist to evaluate the child's symptoms from diverse and multi-layered perspectives, and enabling the parents to resume their supportive functions, in particular, through vivid restoration of emotional availability in the patient's mother, were noted as the keys to the child's recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skin is recognized as the boundary between an individual and society. Skin is also known to impact social and psychiatric conditions. The social aspect of skin characteristics has been gaining attention especially when it comes to hair-pulling or skin-picking disorders. These disorders, which target skin, hair or nails, have been investigated and described in the revised version of DSM-5 as “body-focused repetitive behaviors” (BFRB). Most patients with BFRB have psychiatric problems. However, most will visit a dermatologist, and not a psychiatrist, although the psychiatric symptoms and recurrent BFRBs are difficult to manage for dermatologists who do not typically have psychiatric knowledge. The untreated psychiatric symptoms, including targeting of the skin, will eventually result in skin damage such as lesions, infection, and scars. DSM-5-revised describes a new categorization of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (OCRDs). Hair-pulling disorder known as trichotillomania is now categorized as an OCRD, whereas it was previously recognized as an impulse-control disorder under DSM-IV. Additionally, excoriation (skin-picking) disorder and body-focused repetitive be- havior disorder, recognized as a new unit in diagnosis, have also been categorized as OC-RDs. These revisions in diagnostic criteria reflect significance of the close relationships between BFRB and OCRDs, as well as the importance of psychosomatic dermatology and psychodermatology, which examine the clinical relationships between dermatology and psychiatry. This study reviews literature that is relevant to hair-pulling and skin-picking disorders, as well as scratching behavior, especially that which occurs in patients with atopic dermatitis (AD). The paper also investigates the clinical characteristics and treatment of a patient with hair-pulling disorder and AD treated in a child psychiatry clinic, demonstrating the benefits of placing greater focus on psychodermatology, and the importance of collaboration between child psychiatrists and dermatologists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This paper presents the impact of a large scale natural disaster on the mental health of preschool children. On March 11, 2011, Japan was struck by the Great East Japan Earthquake, of magnitude 9 with an ensuing tsunami, causing unprecedented damage. There were over 18,000 fatalities, and more than 380,000 victims were forced to live in temporary housing for a long time. As for children, there were over 700 deaths, and many others lost their parents-250 were orphaned, and over 1，500 children lost one parent. Japan is one of the countries most frequently stricken by natural disasters. But even so, the Great East Japan Earthquake left us with much to learn in terms of disaster preparedness. Subjects & methods: Our subjects were 71 preschool children encountering the quake at a day care center, and severely affected by the series of traumatic events which ensued. The authors have been following and providing the children with mental health support in collaboration with the day care center, and subsequently, the elementary schools they entered. Further investigation was conducted on 32 of the children from whom parental consent was obtained, through direct observation and interview of the children, parents, and teachers, regarding the children’s clinical features and course of PTSD. Results: The rate of PTSD was very high, and traumatized children exhibited various symptoms associated with the event. Numbing and dissociation were more commonly recognized over other symptoms, such as re-experiencing the traumatic event and increased arousal. Children without immediate parental presence after the disaster, and children of parents with problems exhibited higher incidence of PTSD. The presence of such parental issues was also suggested as one of the factors in the deterioration and protraction of the course of PTSD. Implications: Personnel involved with the provision of post-disaster mental health should be aware that rates of PTSD are not low in preschool children, and that symptoms of numbing and dissociation are readily overlooked by first responders and caregivers. Furthermore, as parental influence factors largely in both the traumatization and care of children with PTSD, the possibility of perspectives such as Complex PTSD should be kept in mind in cases involving the deterioration of PTSD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Great East Japan Earthquake was one of the most devastating natural disasters ever to hit Japan. Purpose: This paper reviews the results of research into psychological outcomes following the catastrophic earthquake in children and adolescents to determine methods of effective support. Method: Literature and articles retrieved using multiple medical search engines with earthquakes, children, and psychology as keywords were reviewed and classified into three categories by theme. Theme １ : PTSD in children following earthquake disasters. Theme 2: Mental problems harbored by children after disastrous quakes. Theme 3: Risk profiles affecting such mental problems. Results: Most studies on the mental issues affecting children in the aftermath of earthquake disasters focused on PTSD. Post-quake PTSD was found to be correlated with age, somatic disorders, social aid, sex, and experience of tsunami. Adolescence is a high-risk group prone to present PTSD, suggesting greater need for continuous intervention for this age group. Moreover, it was found that children experiencing the tsunami-a principal feature of the Great East Japan Earthquake -suffered mental consequences beyond those affecting victims of conventional earthquakes, pointing to the critical need and significance of subsequent mental health care for adolescents exposed to the Great East Japan Earthquke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Near-infrared spectroscopy （NIRS） is a non-invasive optical device using the near-infrared spectrum for functional neuroimaging through measurement of oxygenation and hemodynamic changes in the cerebral cortex. Advantages of NIRS include portability and ease of application, allowing for testing with the subject in natural positions such as sitting or standing. Since 1994, NIRS has been increasingly used in conducting functional activation studies on different psychiatric disorders, most prominently schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This paper provides an overview of such studies, alongside review of the principles underlying NIRS. The utility of NIRS in child and adolescent psychiatry is substantial in view of its minimally restrictive, non-invasive nature. In future, it is hoped further applications of NIRS in functional activation studies will contribute largely to the accumulation of evidence in child and adolescent psychiatry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, school-based programmes based on the cognitive behavior approach have come to be practiced from the viewpoint of primary intervention in menal health. The purpose of this article was to review studies on universal type cognitive behavior approaches for adolescent students, to discuss their efficacy and problems. Papers on three major programmes for the management of anxiety and depression in preadolescent and adolescent students overseas were reviewed. Regarding studies in Japan, school-based programmes for junior high school students were reviwed to examine the issues surrounding improvement of mental health in junior high school students employing universal intervention, such as programme content, educational aspects, study design and methods of evaluation. From the results, the authors stress the necessity of implementing efficient long-term educational programmes from the standpoint of health care education, incorporating comprehensive outcome measures such as subjective well-being and quality of life to take full advantage of universal cognitive behavioral interventions, specifically tailored to the school setting in Japan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, self-injurious behavior including wrist-cutting among youth has become a serious problem in Japan. Self-injury is the act of injuring oneself deliberately without suicidal intent, by a non-fatal method, predicting a non-fatal consequence. It is frequently repeated as a means of coping with distress, for instance, to intolerable and painful feelings. The act of self-injury is differentiated from suicide, often provoking negative reactions among mental health and school health professionals, although many studies reveal that individuals resorting to self-injury are more likely to die by suicide than those who do not, indicating self-injury may be one of the important risk factors predicting future attempts at suicide. In this paper, the author outlines the understanding and treatment of self-injurious behavior, along with discussion on the measures that can be taken by schools in the interest of suicide prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]