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Caste is a unique marker of social stratification in India. There are significant eco- nomic inequalities and considerable disparities in educational achievements between historically disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Unequal investments in their chil- dren's human capital by caste can perpetuate income inequalities and reproduce class differences between caste groups. This paper analyses caste-based disparities in house- hold expenditure on children's school education using nationally representative social expenditure data on education from 2007–08 and 2017–18 in India. The paper uses a recentered influence function (RIF) based decomposition analysis to pinpoint the key factors underpinning the disparity in private educational expenditure between disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Further, to overcome the problem of heterogeneity of data the study also employs propensity score matching (PSM) as robustness check for the decomposition analysis. The findings from decomposition and matching approaches reveal that differences in endowments, specifically income differences, between caste groups explain most of the caste-based gap in children's human capital investments. The study has implications for public policy to address educational and economic disparities between disadvantaged caste groups (ST, SC and OBC) and Others in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using 13,584 observations of 4772 undergraduate students enrolled in 523 online classes offered synchronously at a research university in China, and using online-learning platform data and administrative data, this paper examines the impacts of class attendance on academic performance. Based on student-level and course-level fixed effects models with a unique set of student-course level control variables, this paper finds class attendance to have a significantly positive impact on academic performance. This effect is larger for low-performing students and smaller for students in courses with larger class sizes. The above findings survive a number of robustness checks, including a bounding technique, restricting sample to compulsory courses and limiting variation in attendance caused by whole day absence. • This paper represents the first attempt to examine the effects of class attendance on academic performance of college students in synchronous online courses. • Based on 13584 observations of 4772 students enrolled in 523 online classes at a research university in China, this paper uses a larger sample with a diverse range of courses and more accurate indicators of class attendance. • Employing student and course fixed effects, we find that students' class attendance has a significantly positive impact on their academic performance. For a one standard deviation increase in class attendance, academic performance increases by 0.08 standard deviation. • The positive attendance effect is stronger for lower-performing students and students in smaller classes, and remains substantial even for courses without mandatory attendance requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the influence of male peer proportion on a student's academic performance. The sex ratio at 10–14 was 117.16 in 2011, and it has increased to 119.1 in 2019. The sex ratio imbalance at 10–14 tends to expand. This paper uses China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) 2013–14 and 2014–15. Considering the selection bias, this paper restricts the sample to schools that satisfy randomly-assignment conditions. The results highlight that students with a high proportion of male classmates have a lower performance in Mathematics and English but not Chinese. To explain these effects, this paper uses three channels to interpret: (1) cognitive ability, (2) learning effort, and (3) the quality of the classroom environment. It provides implications for policymakers and school administrators to take precautions in advance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study sought to determine if students academic integrity during examinations, age and gender predict their academic performance and examine its implications for adopting preventive actions against cheating in examinations. It was based on the Modified Theory of Planned Behaviour. Analysis of data collected with the aid of Academic Integrity Measurement Instrument (AIMI) led to significant findings that Academic Integrity during examinations and Age significantly predict Academic Performance. There was significant predictive relationship between Age and Academic Integrity during examinations as well as between Age and Academic Performance. Also, there was a statistically significant difference between male and female students in the Academic Integrity during examinations as well as in their Academic Performances. Whereas mean Academic Integrity score of female students were slightly higher than that of the males; the mean Academic Performance of male students was higher than that of the female students. These findings have implications for test development, administration and students' academic integrity policies and practices. Test developers and administrators should consider inclusion of a segment in the question papers that assess students' academic integrity especially in developing countries like Nigeria. The essence of such inclusion is to determine the relationship between students academic integrity quotient and their academic performance. In other words, the authors strongly recommend to the examination bodies and stakeholders to consider the possibility of determining the proportion of a student's academic performance attributable to academic dishonesty or honesty. • Academic Integrity and Age significantly predict Academic Performance. • There was significant relationship between Age and Academic Integrity. • There was a statistically significant difference between male and female students in Academic Integrity. • Test developers and administrators should consider inclusion of a segment in the question papers that assess students' academic integrity especially in developing countries like Nigeria. • The essence of such inclusion is to determine the relationship between students academic integrity quotient and their academic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the early 2000 s, average standardized test scores of Brazilian public primary and middle school students in both reading and mathematics on the national test, the SAEB, have risen substantially. Although the increases cut across all race and socioeconomic groups, the increases were unequal across groups and varied greatly across states and municipalities/school districts. In this paper, we describe student achievement gains in Brazil among municipalities in 2007–2017, with the goal of understanding the variation in these gains and the socioeconomic, race, and school resource correlates of that variation. Our results suggest that student social class and race were highly correlated with municipal test score gains: those municipalities with higher social class and proportionately more White students made significantly larger gains. However, municipalities with greater social class inequality made smaller gains. Certain average characteristics of teachers in a municipality and the incidence of school violence were also significantly related to student performance gains. Thus, our estimates suggest that it may be possible to soften the effects of social structural inequality among and within districts by increasing the quality of teacher resources and reducing school violence in lower academically gaining districts. • Student test score gains in 2007–2017 were large but varied greatly across districts. • Districts with higher average SES and lower proportions of Blacks made larger gains. • Controlling for SES and race, districts with lower SES inequality made larger gains. • Better-educated teachers and less school violence were also related to higher gains. • SES and race are closely related to school learning gains in an unequal society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper quantifies learning losses related to delaying the return to in presence school activities after the peak of the Covid-19 pandemic, for children of low socioeconomic background in Mexico by exploiting a unique data set constructed for such purpose. Data on math and reading comprehension learning outcomes for a panel of children aged 10–15 were collected between April and December 2021 in two geographically adjacent and similar states in the southern region of the country, with significant between and within state variability in the school reopening and school return process. We use alternative estimation techniques to measure changes in learning outcomes in relation to the exposure to in-presence education during a 6-month period and find that children that returned to school earlier had higher achievement scores of at least 0.27 standard deviations, and these were greater for older children. These findings highlight the potential learning losses associated with remote education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graduation rate is often used as indicator of efficiency and accountability of higher education institutions. However, its official and academic use entails pitfalls, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Based on evidence from Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique, this paper contributes to the academic and policy debate on graduation rates in SSA, by using logistic regression analysis to measure and explain this indicator. The paper’s findings are twofold: (i) graduation rates at UEM (and eventually in SSA) may be different from what their misleading measurement and usage may portray; (ii) graduation rates are particularly affected by the academic aspects of students and the institution. The paper claims that rigor is needed to produce data (e.g. graduation rates) on African universities to strategically inform decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies often associate endogamy with lower academic performance. Alternatively, external exposure seems to be correlated with higher research quality. Consequently, when measuring the effects of endogamy, authors should account for academic inertia as well as the different types of mobility. In this study, a large longitudinal database on the Brazilian higher education system is used to measure the effects of endogamy and mobility on scientific production. This paper examines whether types of scholars–such as those who never leave their doctoral institution or those that have some experience elsewhere, especially abroad, show differential results. Furthermore, it measures the changes in scholars' productivity when controlling for the distinct types of academic mobility throughout their careers. Results suggest that information about how mobile an academic is before and during its career is relevant when estimating the effects of endogamy on academic productivity and international academic experiences are correlated with higher likelihood of publishing. • A large longitudinal database on the Brazilian higher education system is used to measure the effects of endogamy and mobility on scientific production. The paper measures the changes in scholars' productivity when controlling for the distinct types of academic mobility throughout their careers. • Results suggest that information about how mobile an academic is before and during its career is relevant when estimating the effects of endogamy on academic productivity and international academic experiences are correlated with higher likelihood of publishing at more prestigious journals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we seek to contribute to the post-2015 education agenda by shifting the focus from considerations of what education goals and targets should be to a people-centred exploration of enabling environments, within and beyond education, for equity, access and quality. Theoretically, the paper draws on the capabilities approach. Empirically, we present data from two independent qualitative studies conducted in South Africa (n = 40) and Tanzania (n = 10) with university students who accessed higher education despite trends of low participation for their social class and/or gender. The paper highlights the importance of taking account of both instrumental and intrinsic values of education. Enablers in the domains of school, family and community are identified and their contribution to educational well-being and achievement are demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some 16 years after the Belfast/Good Friday Agreement, the legacy of the conflict in Northern Ireland is most clearly evident in the delivery of key public services. The focus of this paper is the highly segregated and unequal system of education provision and the attempts made to tackle these problems at the post-primary level. First, in terms of performance, post-primary educational outcomes are hugely variable: this is the problem of performance inequality . Second, pupils from deprived backgrounds – pupils entitled to free school meals and those with special educational needs are grossly under-represented in Northern Ireland's top-performing (grammar) schools: this is the problem of access inequality . Third, as a corollary of two separate systems of education – Protestant and Catholic – there is ‘segregation’ of pupils by school type: Catholic pupils attend maintained schools and Protestant pupils attend controlled schools and, in consequence, rarely have the opportunity to meet and interact in a school setting. In the face of these problems, this paper proposes a novel approach entitled shared education . Under this scheme, schools of different religious backgrounds will enter into ‘partnerships for excellence’ to promote good educational outcomes through a sharing of resources and pooling of expertise and, by doing so, help to dismantle the boundaries which separate Northern Ireland's pupils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amongst those engaged in devising post-2015 education targets, there is general agreement on the centrality of quality. However, there is greater debate on whether the quality of education can and should be measured by learning outcomes. Even if learning outcomes are viewed as an appropriate measure, what type of outcomes should be measured? Offering lessons from the goals that were set in 2000, this article highlights the importance of making sure goals and targets are clear and measurable, and put equity at their heart. From a rights-based perspective, the paper proposes tracking progress towards a universal target that, at a minimum, ensures that all children, regardless of circumstance, complete primary school and achieve the basics in reading and mathematics. The paper illustrates the importance of adopting a ‘stepping-stones’ approach to ensure that no one is left behind by 2030, with interim targets that assess progress for the most disadvantaged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"University Social Responsibility", commonly abbreviated as USR, is a term that was created at the beginning of the 2000 s. The term USR was advocated by the inspiration of "Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)" under the rapid progression of globalization. CSR is understood as being a corporate management way through which a company achieves a balance of economic, environmental, and social imperatives, while at the same time addressing the needs of stakeholders. Hence this term includes an idea of corporate management and competition theory. In this respect, USR can be said to differ from previously used terms to discuss universities' roles and missions. Positioning this point as a property of USR, this study focused on this term. This is a literature review that aims to extract features of USR based on its nature and to consider achievements and issues. This study classified the research topics using the text mining method first and dug deep changes in the research trends by reading papers that were selected along with those topics carefully. As a result, three features were detected: a dynamic process on the practice base, a methodology to design corporative university management, and a top-down style concept. The concept of USR differed depending on the social situation in each country, while USR has converged as a way to meet the demands of social contribution to universities in the practice process. Since around 2018, there has been a trend toward improving the substantial quality of education while intending to differentiate from other universities. • The term USR was reinterpreted based on its nature brought by introducing corporate social responsibility. • Research trends of USR are explored using text mining. • USR is not a static condition but a dynamic process. • USR has tended to be recognized as a methodology of corporate management in the process. • Recently, improving the substantial quality of education has been intended while intending to differentiate from other universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This paper examines whether home overcrowding has a significant effect on children's academic performance. This topic has not been explored in detail in Latin America. • The study uses data from the international SERCE (2006) test conducted in fifteen Latin America countries for a sample of students of sixth grade. • The results show that overcrowding has a negative effect that even exceeds the impact of certain maternal education level on a child's academic performance. After examining the robustness of the model with several techniques, the coefficients remains negative and statistically significant. • The evidence suggests that overcrowding is an important variable that should be considered when creating public policies aimed at improving student performance. This study seeks to determine whether overcrowding has a significant effect on students' academic performance, controlling for variables associated with poverty and low socioeconomic status. It uses data from the international SERCE test conducted in fifteen Latin American countries. Based on multiple specifications and robustness tests, the evidence suggests that overcrowding is a negative and statistically significant factor that even exceeds the impact of certain maternal education levels on a child's academic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We analyze the inequality of opportunities at two successive levels of education. • Inequality of opportunity in Colombia persists from secondary to undergrad studies. • Students' predetermined circumstances increasingly affect their performance. • Finishing undergrad faster mitigates part of the initial inequalities. Abstract Education is an instrument for citizens to improve their welfare and income, but opportunities to access and attain education are unequally distributed. This paper analyzes how predetermined characteristics affect students' achievement in two standardized tests, one taken at the end of their secondary education (between 2000 and 2007) and the other when finishing their undergrad studies (2011). The results, using data from Colombia, indicate that the inequality of educational opportunities at both levels of education has increased over time, but that students who finish their undergrad studies in less time manage to mitigate part of the inequality of opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Use data for 12 countries from Latin America (TERCE). • Investigate the role of parental expectations on Indigenous learning gap. • Use three different definitions of Indigeneity. • Look at the role of discrimination and external constraints on the gap. • Find that the importance of the external channel on Indigenous learning inequality. Abstract Though mechanisms of Indigenous' exclusion in education due resources is well understood, there is a lack of evidence on role of educational expectations as an additional barrier for Indigenous children learning. In this paper, I use a recent Latin American learning survey (TERCE) for sixth grade students covering 12 countries to assess whether Indigenous families have lower educational expectations than non-Indigenous families and whether lower Indigenous parental schooling expectations are also linked to lower learning of their children. I found the that the context (the external channel) matters on the formation and transition of educational expectations for Indigenous children learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper identified the best practices in managing the demand for an international perspective in five selected HEIs. The study revealed that (1) internationalization is necessary for institutional growth and national economic interests; (2) selected HEIs adopted a common rationale for internationalization; and (3) internationalization of selected HEIs was partially demonstrated. The study also showed the factors that fostered or impeded the internationalization process and these are: (1) absence of articulated visions, missions, goals, and core values for internationalization; (2) lack of well-defined strategic plans for internationalization; (3) limited internal resources; and (4) lack of a supportive culture at institutional level. The study proposed a framework for creating an internationalized campus that would show how an HEI typically would grow into becoming a full participant in the global arena. Using this framework as a touchstone, academic managers could get their bearings when assessing their university's position and would have a tool for planning future directions and performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We study Malaysia's performance in PISA 2012 vis-a-vis South Korea and Singapore. • Oaxaca decomposition method is used to explain between-country test scores gap. • The underlying educational production function controls for student, family, school and teacher specific factors. • Malaysia's under-performance is unexplained by between-country differences in student's family background and school resources. Abstract East Asia's phenomenal economic rise has been attributed to its early investment in human capital. While countries such as South Korea and Singapore dominate in international student assessments, other countries from the region (e.g. Malaysia) lag far behind despite heavy spending in education. This paper assesses student performance in mathematics, science and reading in Malaysia vis-à-vis Korea and Singapore by examining the relative contribution of individual, family background, school, teacher and institutional factors in explaining between-country test score differences. Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis is performed using data from the 2012 round of Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to determine how much of the between-country test scores gap can be explained by observed family and school specific characteristics. Our results demonstrate that while socio-economic and school specific factors matter, more than half of the achievement gap between the two high performers and Malaysia remains unexplained even after accounting for the contribution of those factors. We conclude by highlighting policy, institution and culture related explanations for this unexplained gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Applicants from wealthy households have an advantage in terms of access to higher education through a higher level of investment in pre-entry coaching. • There are positive and significant relationships between the level of income and USE results for high school graduates, given equal achievement before coaching. • In general, investment in pre-entry coaching has positive returns, but the most significant type of investment is pre-entry courses. • Investment in pre-entry courses improves USE results only for students from the most affluent households. Abstract This paper examines the impact of family income on the results of the newly introduced Unified State Examination (USE) in Russia. We argue that entrants from wealthy households have an advantage in terms of access to higher education, since income positively affects USE scores through a higher level of investment in pre-entry coaching. We have found positive and significant relationships between the level of income and USE results for high school graduates, given equal achievement before coaching. We demonstrate that in general, investment in pre-entry coaching has positive returns, but the most significant type of investment is pre-entry courses. However, such strategy improves USE results only for students from the most affluent households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This paper examines the effects of sibship composition and birth order on the school enrolment and educational attainment of children, using data from the Vietnam Population and Housing Census 2009. • We find that sibship size has a significant, negative effect on child education and having an additional boy lowers children's average educational attainment for both girls and boys. • We establish that birth order has a significant, negative effect on child education attainment, although that effect seems to vanish with the youngest sibling. • The findings imply that the result of family planning policy during the 1990s and 2000s may contribute to its remarkable educational achievements. • As parents disproportionately allocate more resources for boys and earlier born children, government-targeted programs should tackle those issues to provide equal school opportunities for all children. This paper examines the effects of sibship composition and birth order on the school enrolment and educational attainment of children, using data from the Vietnam Population and Housing Census 2009. Utilizing an instrumental variable estimation method to address the endogeneity of sibship size, we find that it has a significant, negative effect on child education. Examining the impact of sibling sex composition, we find that having an additional boy lowers children's average educational attainment for both girls and boys. We establish that birth order has a significant, negative effect on child educational attainment, although that effect seems to vanish with the youngest sibling. Our findings have several policy implications. First, the negative effect of sibship size on education implies that Vietnam's lower fertility rate, the result of family planning policy during the 1990s and 2000s, may contribute to its remarkable educational achievements. Second, we find that birth order and sibling sex composition are more important than sibship size in children's educational outcomes. As parents disproportionately allocate more resources for boys and earlier born children, government-targeted programs should tackle those issues to provide equal school opportunities for all children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates which micro factors among student, classroom, teacher, and school characteristics explain inequalities in public-private school achievement at the end of primary school in 14 sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. Using data from the 2019 CONFEMEN Education Systems Analysis Program (PASEC) assessment and an empirical strategy that leverages an educational production function, an Oaxaca-Blinder, Juhn Murphy, and Pierce decomposition, the main findings are as follows. Private schools provide a higher quality of education than public schools. The variables gender of the student, age and gender of the teacher, and number of inspections contribute to reducing inequalities between the two groups, while the variables home language, kindergarten attendance, socioeconomic level of the student's family, age of the student, and location and infrastructure of the school contribute to maintaining educational inequalities. Students who do less well in private schools are less likely to succeed in public schools. Those who do well in public schools are equally likely to do well in private schools. • This research focuses on the qualitative and quantitative aspects of education at the end of primary school. • The study uses rigorous econometric analysis to assess the issue of public-private inequities. • This research focuses on the differences in academic performance between public and private schools. • The results of this research are of interest to both public and private educational developers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Reducing learning inequality in foundational literacy is possible. • Interventions focusing on foundational skills may reduce learning inequality even without specific inequality targeting. • Measurement of learning inequality in foundational literacy is possible using existing tools familiar to economics. • Measuring learning at the bottom of the pyramid can lead to insights otherwise not observable through sample averages. • Improvements in means and in learning equity are not only compatible but indeed tend to happen simultaneously. This paper uses measurements of learning inequality to explore whether learning interventions that are aimed at improving means also reduce inequality, and if so, under what conditions. There is abundant evidence that learning levels are generally low in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), but there is less knowledge about how learning achievement is distributed within these contexts, and especially about how these distributions change as mean levels increase. We use child-level data on foundational literacy outcomes to quantitatively explore whether and how learning inequality using metrics borrowed from the economics and inequality literature can help us understand the impact of learning interventions. The paper deepens recent work in several ways. First, it extends the analysis to six LMIC, displaying which measures are computable and coherent across contexts and baseline levels. This extension can add valuable information to program evaluation, without being redundant with other metrics. Second, we show the large extent to which the disaggregation of inequality of foundational skills between- and within-schools and grades varies by context and language. Third, we present initial empirical evidence that, at least in the contexts of analysis of foundational interventions, improving average performance can reduce inequality as well, across all levels of socioeconomic status (SES). The data show that at baseline, the groups with the highest internal inequality tend to be the groups with lowest SES and lowest reading scores, as inequality among the poor themselves is higher than among their wealthier counterparts. Regardless of which SES groups benefit more in terms of a change in mean levels of reading, there is still a considerable reduction in inequality by baseline achievement as means increase. These results have policy implications in terms of targeting of interventions: much can be achieved in terms of simultaneously improving averages and increasing equality. This seems particularly true when the initial learning levels are as low as they currently are the developing world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there is wide consensus regarding the importance of quality of teachers in student achievement; yet, accounting for teacher effects remain a puzzling task. In Chile, research on teacher quality has predominantly relied on cross-sectional data, and largely focused on identifying teacher attributes related to teaching quality. Only have few studies addressed the problem of non-random assignment of students to teachers. This paper attempts to fill these gaps. On the basis of pseudo-longitudinal data for 2011 from the Education Quality Measurement System and teachers’ administrative records, we employed value-added and fixed-effect models correcting for sorting-bias, to assess the overall contribution of teachers to student achievement and identify which teacher characteristics enhance teacher effectiveness. We find that teacher contribution to students’ learning in mathematics and language is very significant. In addition, teaching experience has a significant non-linear impact on test scores in math but not in reading. Both junior and senior teachers are effective in the educational system. We discuss the policy implications and limitations of these results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the education efficiency in Tunisia based on a sample of secondary schools. We place some special focus on schools resources and corresponding dropout levels. We use the Directional Distance Function (DDF) methodology to simultaneously deal with bad outputs and non-discretionary inputs. Our assessment is based on Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method. The data is extracted from the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 survey. We generate four models through various inputs and outputs specifications while considering dropout levels and education environment. Our empirical study reveals strong influence between education performance and both school infrastructure and educational resources. In particular, the financial constraints seem to have real effect on the dropout levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a six-year study (2005–2010) tracking a cohort of students from Grade 12 into and through the South African higher education (HE) system. The study sought to ascertain how the pathways of students from different socioeconomic backgrounds differed. Key findings were that socioeconomic status is a differentiating feature in student progression through and retention within HE and in completion of HE programmes. Confirming UK and US findings, the study simultaneously points up the need for further research locating student progression and performance within a broader developmental context that takes account of learning pathways from pre-school into HE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The efficiency of schools can be defined and measured as the ratio between the outputs produced (for example, achievement and competences) and the inputs utilized (human and technical resources). Technology holds the promise of increasing the efficiency of schools' operations, although empirical evidence on this is still scarce. This paper explores whether the ICT availability and use in 2757 schools from 10 Latin American countries are associated with higher efficiency, relying on PISA 2018. A method based on a double-bootstrap Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is employed. The results highlight that the availability of ICT is positively correlated with higher school efficiency. This evidence is relevant for policy implications in setting the post-COVID priorities for educational systems in the region. • We employ the PISA (2018) for the Latin American region and DEA. • We study the impact of ICT access and its use on school efficiency in the region. • We find a level of inefficiency for the region of around 25%, with a high degree dispersion. • We find that the degree of access of ICT matters for efficiency more than ICT use. • The impact of level of ICT use on efficiency is more nuanced varying across countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The study examines the role of after-class learning time in educational performance. • GPSM method is used to explore the causal effect of learning time on academic performance. • There is a relatively stable "inverted U" relation between after-class learning time and academic performance. • This paper determines the optimal learning time to maximize academic achievement. • We discuss the mechanism of how after-class learning time affects academic performance. This paper examines the role of after-class learning time in educational performance. In the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015, Chinese students spent the longest time on study out of school compared with OECD countries but ranked only 10th in mathematics, reading and science. It is doubtful that the longer students study after school, the better their academic performance will be. Based on a representative survey of middle school students in China, we draw on generalized propensity score matching to explore the causal effect between after-class learning time and academic performance, find that the two have a relatively stable "inverted U" relation, and determine that the best academic performance can be achieved when after-class learning time is kept at 3 h per day on weekdays and 8 h per day on weekends. More than these optimal times will hinder academic performance. We further find that the effect of after-class study time on academic performance varies among different groups. There is evidence that after-class learning time influences academic performance through two channels: students' perceived learning difficulty and self-efficacy. This paper concludes that in addition to the appropriate homework assigned by teachers, parents should keep extracurricular tutoring for their children within a reasonable amount of time to maximize students' academic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the extent to which teacher behaviour in classroom affects student achievement gains in mathematics in Ghana. A representative sample of primary schools from three districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana was selected (n = 73) using stage sampling procedure, and written tests in mathematics were administered to all grade six students at the beginning and end of school year 2013–2014. Two observation instruments and a student questionnaire were used in collecting data on quality of teaching. Multilevel analyses revealed that teacher factors are associated with student learning outcomes. Implications for promoting quality in education are drawn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Education is widely considered as the most important path to social mobility in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), yet there are very few studies of the extent to which it fulfills this promise. In this paper we use survey data from eight MENA countries to understand the relationship between schooling attainment of youth and the circumstances into which they are born, namely gender, parental education, parental household's position in the per capita expenditure distribution and urban/rural location. We consider various attainment levels from the chance of entering any kind of schooling to attending upper secondary schooling and address the fact that many children are still in school by using a censored ordered probit model. We find high degrees of inequality of opportunity in school attainment, especially with respect to attending secondary school. The most opportunity unequal countries in this respect are Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. Jordan, Palestine and Tunisia are the least opportunity unequal in this respect. This paper builds on a previous study of inequality of opportunity in educational achievement, which showed that in most MENA countries, learning opportunities are not equal. In this study, we find that - even in attending and staying in school- the playing field is not level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper endeavours to shed light on the effect of private tutoring for Mathematics, Chinese and English in various kinds of class-size on students’ performances in the National College Entrance Exam (NCEE) in China. To achieve this, it draws upon a dataset collected by a specifically designed questionnaire on private tutoring of grade 12 students in Jinan, China. With the consideration of nested alternative structure of choices among private tutoring in different class-size and self-selection problem, the study employed a nested logit model to investigate the factors underlying students’ choice of private tutoring and has fitted OLS model to examine the effects of different class-size tutoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how competition impacts the technical efficiency of schools. We model competition between schools using Geographical Information System (GIS) tools in order to develop a Herfindahl–Hirschman market concentration index (HHI) and then follow a stochastic frontier analysis with alternative specifications that enable us to obtain the best unbiased efficient estimators. We find three important results. First, a higher degree of competition from public and private schools significantly increases elementary school efficiency in Mexico, as measured by the outcomes in a nationwide standardized test. Second, we find a positive, though small, association between expenditure on education and school outputs. Third, private schools perform significantly better due to the differential incentives they face in terms of competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper focuses on how accurate teachers may or may not be in gauging their class’academic abilities. We use a sample of classrooms in three Russian regions to identify sources of mathematics and Russian teachers’ inaccuracies in predicting their high school classes’ scores on Russian and mathematics high stakes college entrance tests (the Unified State Exam, or USE). We test the hypothesis that teachers’ perceptions of their relationship with their classes are good predictors of such inaccuracies. This is important because teachers often focus on their relationship with the class as an end in itself or as a means to engaging students. Good teacher–student relations may indeed result in more students’ learning, but perhaps not nearly as much as teachers’ believe. We find that both Russian and mathematics teachers make inaccurate predictions of their class’ high stakes examination results based on how they perceive their relationship with their class. Teachers who believe they have a very good relationship with the class significantly overestimate their class’ performance on the USE, and those who perceive a poor relationship, underestimate their class’ performance, although this underestimate is generally not statistically significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the practice of automatic promotion in primary schools of Ethiopia. It uses interview and survey data to examine teachers’ practices and parents’ views and synthesise its implications on quality of education. In light of the international literature and the education and training policy (ETP), the study investigated whether the Ethiopian school context promotes the basic premises of automatic promotion—providing universal primary education and maintaining the value of education through improving its quality. The study reveals that tutoring is the major type of teachers’ support to improve academic performance of students. Although some parents and teachers appreciate the importance of promoting students, automatically promoted students face difficulty to meet the standards required in the next grade level, which in turn decrease their interest and motivation to learning. The absence of a systematic and consistent implementation guideline on automatic promotion produced inconsistent practices among teachers and schools. The study also uncovers that the practice of automatic promotion may have contributed to educational wastage when its undesired spillover effect (low interest, low effort, and poor attendance) has spread to students who could have attended classes regularly and demonstrated better learning outcomes. It is concluded that promoting low achieving students in the absence of appropriate support system results in low interest to attend classes and poor learning which eventually leads to drop out from schooling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In China, the education of increasing numbers of migrant children in urban settings is undertaken in integrated public or segregated migrant schools. This study compares the factors and predictors related to migrant children's mathematics achievement in public schools and migrant schools. Regression analyses were conducted to determine which independent variables (school type, sibling numbers, length of residence in urban areas, gender, preschool attendance, and parental socioeconomic status) were the predictors of migrant students’ mathematics achievement. With respect to the total sample, the overall model of five factors pertinent to student achievement outcomes in mathematics was significant (sibling numbers, length of residence in urban areas, preschool attendance, parental socioeconomic status and school type). While these factors figure prominently as significant academic predictors for the migrant school sample, the only significant predictor of mathematics achievement for the public school sample is parental socioeconomic status. In the light of these findings the paper concludes with suggestions for the intervention that inform and characterize the education of migrant children in urban schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on data collected from a school-based study in India, this paper adds to the scant literature on the relationship between school quality and agency and attitudes of girls and boys in secondary schools; it also explores the better-researched association between school quality and academic competencies. The study was conducted among girls and boys in Class 10 in 30 government-run secondary schools in the state of Bihar. Findings show that classroom dynamics, particularly non-discriminatory treatment by teachers and their expression of gender egalitarian attitudes positively influenced gender role attitudes and awareness of health matters among girls and boys. It also influenced their academic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship between an early Islamic education and academic achievement in Afghanistan. Fears of political indoctrination have dominated discussions of Islamic schooling among many Westerners, making some policy-makers hesitant to support the kind of education to which most children in Afghanistan have access. In addition, misunderstandings of Islamic education as well as assumptions about the lack of educational benefits from pre-primary or primary Islamic schools have helped sideline them in policy discussions. But mosque schools may play an important role in preparing children for academic success. Children who attend mosque schools score better on tests of literacy than those who do not. This is particularly significant in countries like Afghanistan where many children do not have access to formal education. These findings suggest that mosque schools merit more careful attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper goes further in the discussion on the determinants of school attainment in developing countries. To properly estimate the effects of school resources on academic achievement, we need to take into account the large geographical inequalities in the distribution of school resources and the supply constraints faced by students living in poor areas. We do so by implementing a two-step correction that accounts for the constraints in school choice. Our findings suggest that failing to account for these constraints leads to an underestimation of the effect of school resources on school achievement of about 100%. This underestimation is particularly important for girls and in Math. Additionally, the contribution of school resources in explaining the gap in test scores between rich and poor students is doubled once we account for the constrained choices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on data from the Southwest Basic Education Project, this paper provides an empirical estimation of gender gaps in Chinese and math among primary and lower-secondary school students in poor counties of Southwestern China. Major findings from 2-level HLM analysis by grade (3, 5, 7, and 9) include: (1) small positive gaps favoring girls in Chinese and negative gaps in math were found for all grades. (2) Gaps were larger in higher grades, girls’ advantage in Chinese experienced a small increase over the 2006–2010 period, and gaps varied by province. (3) Being a minority and having a low SES interplayed with gender in some circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyses the effect of government school attendance on refugee pupils' learning achievement and the effect of refugee concentration in schools on the learning achievement of native pupils in government schools. The study uses learning assessment data collected in refugee settlements and host communities in West Nile, Uganda. The results show that refugee pupils attending government schools do not perform differently in English but score lower in math than those in non-government schools, while native pupils attending government schools with higher refugee concentrations score lower in both English and math under the context where massive refugee influx continues. • We analyze effects of including refugees in government schools on pupils' learning. • Data come from West Nile, Uganda, during the South Sudanese refugee influx. • Attending government schools has no significant effect on refugees' English score. • Refugees score lower in maths in government schools than in non-state schools. • Natives in high refugee concentration schools score less in English and math. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Certificates obtained after taking Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations (SSCE) are priority documents that qualify students to be admitted into tertiary level education and are also a minimum requirement to contest in some political elections in Nigeria. 'Miracle' Examination Centres (MECs) are rogue/corrupt business outfits that position as regular schools/examination centres, but in reality deploy deviant means to secure unmerited SSCE results/certificates, and hence undermine academic integrity and country-wide development. In these rogue centres, candidates can acquire unmerited desirable grades across subjects taken in SSCE, hence the 'miracle' commonly ascribed to such centres in Nigeria. This paper deploys a systematic review of Nigeria-focused exam malpractice literature to explore the drivers that facilitate the establishment and spread of MECs as well as interventions that can be used to eliminate them. Identified documents that met inclusion criteria (94: 48 non-traditional academic and 46 traditional academic publications) were retrieved and reviewed. Proximate drivers of MECs involve the actions and inactions of certain actors that are within immediate reach of influence and at grassroots, such as parents, community-based groups, and schools (school owners, principals, teachers, students, etc.). Remote drivers are the actions and inactions of the examination bodies and regulatory institutions that allow MECs to thrive. We consider the remote drivers to be away from immediate reach of influence as shown in our conceptual framework. Therefore, addressing the challenge of MECs by focusing on proximate drivers, appears to be feasible within the short and mid-terms, unlike the remote drivers. • Certificates obtained from writing Senior Secondary Certificate Examinations (SSCEs) are priority documents in Nigeria. • The pressure to obtain these certificates have given rise to endemic exam malpractice. • Rogue schools popularly known as miracle examination centres (MECs) position to make profit by 'helping' candidates cheat. • We conducted a systematic review to understand the nature of MECs, the drivers, as well as proposed solutions to the problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous empirical studies tend to attribute the impact of school fees to improvements in schooling access or quality. First, in this study, we argue that the implementation of school fee abolition programs varies widely across countries; therefore, its success or failure is unique. Second, evaluation of fee elimination programs should not be viewed as the results of eliminating fees per se but as part of a comprehensive program package since they are usually combined with other interventions. This paper attempts to quantify the impact of the primary school fee abolition program in Mozambique implemented over 2004 and 2005. The country took a unique approach. The government pilot-tested the program, planned it years ahead, and put other interventions in place to prepare for shocks associated with enrollment surge. Using the relevant age cohort to determine a child's exposure to the program, we found that from 2005 through 2008, the enrollment probability of the official primary school age (6−12) children was statistically and significantly higher by 11.6% points. When treatment intensity was allowed to vary across age, we found that age 9 benefitted the most, and there were potential positive spillover effects on secondary school enrollment as enrollment probability increased significantly across all ages up to age 18. The impact is also widespread across urban, rural areas and both genders, but it particularly has much larger effects on the more vulnerable group of children, the poor in rural areas and girls. Our analysis also highlights an ample number of late entrants in Mozambique as in most developing countries. The results show that the program, reducing the cost of education, has successfully raised enrollment rates among younger official school-age children. • We review different approaches to the implementation of school fee abolition programs across countries. • Fee elimination programs should be evaluated as a comprehensive intervention program rather than fees per se. • We attempt to quantify the impact of the 2004–2005 primary school fee abolition program in Mozambique. • The country was one of the few that implemented a "Gradualist" approach to fee elimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the effect of a large-scale scholarship introduced by the Indonesian government in 2010 that provides generous financial assistance for poor students. By using administrative data from a large public university in Indonesia, this study estimates the likely effect of the scholarship on student academic performance during university. Using matching methods of coarsened exact matching (CEM) that take into account the selection criteria used for scholarship allocation, we find that the scholarship is positively associated with student performance in terms of GPA. Furthermore, we find that these positive associations are strongest for the least advantaged group in terms of family income. • BIDIKMISI is a large-scale scholarship from the Indonesian government for poor university students. • The targeting is effective as the majority of the recipients were students from poor families. • The administrative data and matching methods provide estimations of the effect of scholarship. • We find that the scholarship positively impacts student performance in terms of GPA. • The effects are strongest for the least advantaged group in terms of family income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning is a fundamental human right, the basis of developing human capital and the foundation of human development. Basic skills provide individuals, their families and communities with the foundations needed to participate in society and to achieve better life chances. The shift in focus from mass access to mass learning has drawn attention to the question of who is and is not attaining these skills, and why. Opportunities to learn depend on access to schooling, but also the effectiveness of that schooling. There is considerable evidence of learning inequalities, both across and within countries. However, less is known about whether these patterns of inequality are rooted in variations in school effectiveness. In this paper we use evidence from Young Lives school surveys in Ethiopia, India and Vietnam to consider differences in girls' and boys' learning outcomes and progress and investigate how these patterns relate to school effectiveness. We explore whether girls or boys are 'sorted' into more or less effective schools and whether the same schools are differentially effective for boys and girls. Findings from India are perhaps closest to the 'typical' story that is often heard, in which girls, particularly those in rural areas, have lower attainment and attend less effective schools. In comparison, in Vietnam, girls have higher test scores and attend more effective schools on average, with this pattern driven by the higher performance of girls in rural areas. In Ethiopia, the divide between urban and rural areas is predominant in this context, over and above other areas of inequality including gender. Comparing results from these different areas of analysis and from three very different countries reveals the complexities of understanding how gender relates to educational outcomes. It demonstrates the importance of understanding gendered outcomes and school effectiveness in context. • Educational outcomes depend on access to education and the quality of that education. • Cross-country analysis reveals the complexities of how gender and school effectiveness relate to educational outcomes. • In India, where there is greatest school choice, girls have lower attainment and attend less effective schools than boys. • In Vietnam, the opposite is true - girls perform better and attend more effective schools. • In Ethiopia, the divide between urban and rural areas is predominant, over other axes of inequality including gender. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Analyzes effects of test preparation for the same students on different types of math and science tests. • Uses students fixed effects methodology to identify unbiased estimates of effects. • Controls for previous math and science performance. • Estimates effects of test prep for male and female students. • Discusses the implications of the results in the Russian context. A central concern surrounding test-based accountability is that teachers may narrow teaching practices to improve test performance on a curriculum-based specific knowledge test rather than student learning more broadly. Two of the most common teaching practices that "teach to the test" are providing test-specific classwork and increasing the frequency with which students take practice tests. Whether such teaching practices improve student learning—both in terms of learning the content associated with a specific knowledge test as well as more general learning—is a largely unanswered question. To approach this question, this paper uses a student fixed effects approach to analyze the impact of these kinds of narrow teaching practices on student performance on a specific test as well as a general knowledge test. We find that test-specific classwork and practice tests with specific test items tend to have little or negative impacts on curriculum specific or general knowledge test performance, except for male students, and that subject practice tests (without emphasizing test-specific items) have positive effects on student outcomes on both kinds of tests, but larger on the curriculum-specific than on the general test, and much larger on the curriculum-specific test for male students. We discuss the logic for these results and what they tell us about the effectiveness of test-focused teaching practices more generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We calibrate a model of the learning process to reproduce observed learning trajectories. • We use the model to simulate policy approaches. • The model suggests universal grade 10 completion produces little additional learning under observed learning process. • Slowing curriculum pace in our model can increase grade 10 learning by equivalent of 1.6 years of schooling. • Tailoring instruction so that more low performers learn increases grade 10 learning by one year of schooling. Learning trajectories vary amazingly widely across countries, regions, and individual students in dynamic ways. In this paper we develop a parametrized structural model of the dynamics of the learning process and use the model for suggestive policy applications. We first synthesize the existing empirical literature on learning profiles, which suggest a clear set of parameters that formally characterize the learning process. We then calibrate this model of the learning process to reproduce the distribution of observed learning outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Applying our calibrated model to policy simulations, we find that expanding schooling to universal attainment of basic education without changing the dynamics of the learning process would produce very little additional learning. Adjusting other parameters in the model, however, has large, positive effects. Slowing the pace of curriculum, so that more children can keep up, increases average learning in grade 10 by the learning equivalent of 1.6 years of schooling. Expanding the student skill levels that learn from a given level of instruction to account for within classroom heterogeneity of learning levels increases average grade 10 learning by the equivalent of a full year of schooling. The parameters we use are flexible, to accommodate the learning process in different contexts, and future work could explore additional parameterizations and calibrations for informing plans to improve education systems' coherence for learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Changes in the PISA eligibility is correlated with an artificial improvement in the Brazil national average performance. • With a correction to the distribution of students per grade in PISA, there is a more modest increase in Math. • The observed change in the PISA eligibility does not seems to be driven by distinct results across school type. • Controlling the sample to show the same distribution in each state, results in a reordering of states and worse math scores. PISA is one of the most widely used instruments to assess student performance in the world. This paper investigates how changes in testing dates and students' dates of birth (eligibility) between 2000 and 2018 have affected results in Brazil. Controlling for changes in students' grade distribution over time, we show that changes in grade composition are correlated with increases in average score. We estimate that about 60 % of improvements in math are unrelated to student improvement. Since changes in testing date and eligibility are unrelated to the school system, performance increases over time might not be a result of a country's educational policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Reading interventions can impact readers along the reading score distribution differently. • Distributional effects for the Literacy Boost program in a district in Rwanda are studied using Quantile Treatment Effects. • Literacy Boost aimed to make classroom pedagogy and parent and community involvement in reading more effective. • The impact of the program is concentrated among students (girls) at or above the 25th percentiles of higher-order reading outcomes. • Important in terms of policy to tailor programs to the needs to different types of readers. Programs and policies in education overwhelmingly focus on improving the average academic achievement for students. However, educational interventions focused on literacy improvement can impact readers at different levels of the reading score distribution differently, and the distributional differences may be more pronounced by sex. In this paper, I explore data from a field experiment in a district in Rwanda that was intended to make classroom reading pedagogy more effective and engage students, families, and communities in reading activities outside of school to improve students' reading outcomes. I study the distributional effects of the intervention on students on two higher-order reading outcomes – Kinyarwanda fluency and Kinyarwanda text comprehension, measured for students who met a basic literacy threshold. I find that a) the set of interventions had a positive and significant, albeit modest effect on students at or above the 25th percentile of the reading distributions b) the program had positive and significant effects on reading outcomes for girls only, and these effects differed along the reading achievement distribution. This work underscores the importance of tailoring programs and policies to the needs of different types of learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We study the influence of parental involvement on the educational achievements of Russian students. • A negative relationship was found between homework control and student success. • The factor of 'rational' involvement is positively associated with educational achievement and educational choice. • Parental involvement itself depends on the family characteristics. This paper studies the influence of parental involvement in the educational process on the educational achievements of Russian students and their educational strategies, such as studying in high school and successful admission to university. We argue that the patterns of parental involvement represent a link between the formal (school) and informal (family) educational institutions and can have a beneficial effect on academic performance and contribute to the choice of the educational pathway to higher education. Based on data from the longitudinal study 'Trajectories in Education and Careers', it was shown that the results of school state examinations are positively associated with the active participation of parents in school meetings, the employment of tutors (except for the Unified State Exam score in mathematics), and the provision of additional literature for the child. A negative relationship was found between homework control and student success. In general, the factor of 'rational' (not excessive) involvement is positively associated with educational achievement and educational choice, which may indicate the non-linear nature of the relationship. Parental involvement itself depends on the family characteristics, such as mother's education, family income and the number of books at home. In addition, family has a positive impact on educational success and educational strategies, and high school characteristics are especially important for the results of the Unified State Exam and the university choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the effect of the integration of students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) on the academic achievement of their peers without SEN. This achievement is measured using performance in standardized reading and mathematics tests. The study also evaluates the effect of a policy that recognizes and increases resources for special educational needs that had not yet been considered and improves education provision protocols for students with SEN. Using administrative data and standardized test scores, we constructed a panel that follows a cohort of students before and after the reform, determining for each individual and year whether the class to which he/she belongs has any students with SEN. Our identification strategy employs panel data with fixed effects at the school, individual, and time levels. Estimates show that, on average, having a peer with SEN in the classroom has a negative effect on the academic performance of students without SEN. However, these effects are small and decrease, or even vanish, once better inclusion policies are in place. These results suggest that the effect on peers is almost totally canceled when more resources are provided and when adequate treatment and support protocols are implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Art-education, by the means of intensive participation on youth orchestras, impacts positively high-stakes test in both language and mathematics. • Art-education impacts positively average GPA during high school. • Art-education affects perseverance towards higher academic achievements. Research on the causal relation between extracurricular activities and the development of cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes is scarce at the individual level, despite increasing international evidence that such activities are highly relevant and even, in some cases, more effective than traditional school improvement support programs. Based on an unprecedented intervention in the area of music, this paper evaluates the impact of intensive participation of children and young at-risk students in the creation and development of the first youth orchestra of the municipality of Curanilahue, a small and poor county in the south of Chile, South America. After confronting many potential sources of selection bias in the impact estimation–self-selection, parents selection, orchestra selection, payment capacity–we found positive effects of this experience on participants at both the cognitive and socio-emotional levels. We found that orchestra participation positively affects both language and mathematics in SAT-like tests. The estimated impacts are in the upper bound of the impact evaluation sizes range in the developing world (e.g. Duflo et al., 2013 ; McEwan, 2012 ; Ganimian and Murnane, 2016). Furthermore, having analyzed the increase in test scores for those students participating in the orchestra who take the test more than once, we find results that indicate a progressive increase in their scores, both in mathematics and in language, an indicator that can be considered as a proxy of socio-emotional outcomes related to the orientation and persistence to obtain personal goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]