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The detection of force with higher resolution than observed in humans (~1 mN) is of great interest for emerging technologies, especially surgical robots, since this level of resolution could allow these devices to operate in extremely sensitive environments without harming these. In this paper, we present a force sensor fabricated with a miniaturized footprint (9 mm2), based on the detection of the magnetic field generated by magnetized flexible pillars over a giant magnetoresistive sensor. When these flexible pillars deflect due to external loads, the stray field emitted by these will change, thus varying the GMR sensor resistance. A sensor with an array of five pillars with 200~\mu \textm diameter and 1 mm height was fabricated, achieving a 0 to 26 mN measurement range and capable of detecting a minimum force feature of 630~\mu \textN . A simulation model to predict the distribution of magnetic field generated by the flexible pillars on the sensitive area of the GMR sensor in function of the applied force was developed and validated against the experimental results reported in this paper. The sensor was finally tested as a texture classification system, with the ability of differentiating between four distinct surfaces varying between 0 and 162~\mu \textm root mean square surface roughness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a method to reduce cogging torque in permanent magnet (PM) machines by shifting elementary-cogging unit (ECU). The ECU division principle and the feature of cogging torque produced by ECU are also discussed. The proper shift angles for each ECU are deduced according to both fractional and integral slot number per pole, by which any order harmonic cogging torque could be eliminated without the introduction of any new harmonic torque. This paper investigates the validity of the effectiveness of ECU shifting techniques using PM machines with different match of slot number per pole in 2-D finite-element models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, most of the linear generators contain a heavy translator for converting wave power from the ocean into electrical power. As the translator is connected to the buoy, the buoy dynamic performance is reduced by the large mass and, as a result, low velocity of the translator would degrade the electricity generation of the linear generator. This problem has been minimized by the new design in this paper, where the translator is clipped off at first and split into two separate portions to minimize its weight. The secondary stator is magnetically coupled with a special m-shaped main stator which is used to flow the necessary magnetic flux. The weight of the proposed translator is 21.82% lower than that of conventional one and 49.1% by using a recently available permanent magnet with higher specifications. The finite-element method is applied in ANSYS simulation environment for the analysis and comparison between the proposed and conventional designs. Different parameters of the conventional and the proposed linear generator have been discussed in this paper. The simulation results show that the proposed design can generate the same amount of electricity as the existing one with almost half of the translator size. According to the mathematical model, it is understood that the dynamics of the translator would be higher for its lower mass and vice versa. Therefore, minimizing the translator size would result in decrease of mass, which increases the dynamics of the buoy connected to the translator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brushless permanent-magnet (BLPM) machines, with inherent advantages of high-power density and high efficiency, have been widely employed to achieve traction characteristics for traction applications. Generally, traction characteristics require high torque at low speed and wide field-weakening region keeping constant power. However, both conventional interior permanent-magnet (IPM) and surface-mounted permanent-magnet (SPM) machines suffer from high-speed issues in the field-weakening region. A different BLPM machine topology, the pole shoe topology, is proposed in this paper. Although the pole shoe machine is common in industrial variable speed drives employing constant torque regimes, it has not been previously considered for machines designed for a wide field-weakening region. For analysis and comparison, a conventional IPM machine, which is employed as the Nissan Leaf vehicle traction machine, is studied as a reference benchmark machine. Experimental results from this machine are used to validate the analysis presented in this paper. The design results show that the proposed pole shoe machine achieves better field-weakening performance, compared with the conventional IPM and SPM machine topologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a new high performance magnetometer using a single magneto-impedance (MI) sensor with a peak-to-peak voltage detector by synchronized switching (shortened: Pk-pk VD-type MI magnetometer), which is aimed to measure an extremely weak magnetic field ranging from nT ( 10^-9 T) to pT ( 10^-12 T), based upon the conventional MI magnetometer, which is used in the electronic compass. In order to enhance sensitivity and reduce noise, the Pk-pk VD-type MI magnetometer detects both the positive peak and the negative peak in induced voltage waveform of pickup coil. In this paper, for demonstrating the performances of the Pk-pk VD-type MI magnetometer, we investigate the magnetic field sensitivity and the magnetic noise spectral density. We demonstrated that the noise level of the Pk-pk VD-type MI magnetometer is lower than 2 pT/Hz ^1/2 for the frequency range from 1 to 100 Hz, which is much better than the conventional MI magnetometer. We discuss the noise performance of the Pk-pk VD-type MI magnetometer. According to the results obtained in this paper, we expect that this proposed MI magnetometer can be widely used for extremely weak magnetic field detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a comparative study of two different hysteresis models, limiting loop model and elemental operator model. The former is regarded as a mathematical approach based on the traditional Preisach model. To circumvent the difficulty of determining the distribution function in the Preisach model, the data of the limiting hysteresis loop and a function transform on the Preisach diagram are employed. The latter is a physical method which adopts a vectorial elemental operator with biaxial anisotropy based on the magnetization mechanisms of the ferromagnetic material. These two models are analyzed and compared in terms of the underlying principle, numerical implementation, and calculation accuracy in this paper. To verify the introduced models, the magnetic properties of non-oriented silicon steel Lycore-140 and soft magnetic composite material Somaloy 500 under alternating excitations are measured and compared with simulated results, which show the validity and practicability of the models but with different calculation accuracy and speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the wheel-rail supported hybrid railway system, the linear synchronous motor (LSM) for very high-speed transit must be a system that can maintain a large air gap, and the maximum vertical displacement must be taken into consideration in designing the LSM. As such, this paper designs two small-scale LSM models that produce equal output power—one with the normal-conducting magnet and the other with the superconducting magnet. In addition, this paper conducts a comparative analysis of the various characteristics by applying the electromagnetic numerical analysis method. Furthermore, this paper manufactures two small-scale LSM prototypes which have the normal-conducting magnet and the superconducting magnet, while also conducting a no-load and load test. Through such comparisons, this paper attempts to verify the characteristic values of the two models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) is the leading candidate for the next generation of magnetic recording. In HAMR, the thermal profile (with circular contours produced by the near-field transducer) combined with the current writer structures results in recording transitions with noticeable curvature, which causes edge erasure at high linear density and increased transition noise. This transition curvature affects the bit error rate (BER) and is thus important to the model. As the micromagnetic simulations are computationally demanding, in this paper we investigate a fast and simplified write model to capture the transition curvature of HAMR. As the transition curvature causes signal degradation in normally oriented read head array (NHA) having straight gaps, we propose a V-shaped read head array (VHA) by rotating the side readers at appropriate angles to follow the curvature shapes and improve the readback signal. Simulations indicate that, with 2-D signal processing, VHA can provide improved BER performance compared to the NHA in the presence of readback transition curvature on HAMR media. Also this paper indicates that the Curie temperature variance affects BER performance more severely than the anisotropy field variance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an improved magnetic circuit (MC) model considering the leakage, cross coupling, and saturation effects for the performance analysis of an integrated 3 degrees of freedom magnetic bearing (3-DOF MB). Compared with the conventional MC model, this paper analyzes the permanent-magnet bias field, radial and axial control current fields together. By using this improved MC model, it reveals the cross-coupling effect between radial and axial directions in such an integrated 3-DOF MB. The stiffnesses of radial force are significantly influenced by the axial control current, while the stiffnesses of the axial force are independent of the radial control current. Its accuracy is verified by the 3-D finite-element method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses a motor that was designed to satisfy the size constraints of system by using ferrite magnet and has the same performance as rare-earth magnet motor. In general, the size of the motor is increased in order to meet the same performance of motor using a ferrite magnet, because of its very low energy density compared to the rare-earth magnet. In order to compensate for these drawbacks, spoke structures capable of generating maximum magnetic flux at the same rotor size have been frequently studied. However, the spoke type motor structure has a drawback that demagnetization occurs in a magnet-specific portion. However, because it affects harmonics of the airgap flux density by demagnetization, it affects mechanical torque ripple and vibration. Therefore, in this paper, the changed air-gap flux density due to the demagnetization phenomenon and the changed mechanical vibration are analyzed by the finite-element method. In addition, we proposed an optimal rotor structure that can reduce the demagnetization phenomenon of magnets in spoke interior permanent magnet synchronous motor. Experiments were performed to evaluate the reliability of the optimized design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a new method for calculating the braking force of a drum-type eddy current brake with a two-layer structure. The drum-type eddy current brake should have a structure that improves the braking force by applying a material with high conductivity inside the drum because the eddy current loss generated from the drum is used as the braking force. In addition, because the eddy current brake operates at various speeds while braking the vehicle, it is necessary to grasp the braking force according to the speed. Furthermore, because the material of the drum is composed of non-laminated iron having conductivity, the skin effect and the armature reaction phenomenon appear, and the skin depth and the air-gap flux density are different depending on the braking speed. In this paper, the value of the eddy current loss of the eddy current brake with a copper coating inside the drum is newly presented and compared with the finite-element analysis results. In addition, the change in the speed–torque curve according to the conductivity value of the drum and inner coating material are shown. Finally, an experiment was conducted to compare and verify the characteristic curve of the eddy current brake obtained from the newly derived equations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnets have been successfully industrialized in recent years. The mechanical property of sintered permanent magnets is one important aspect of their comprehensive performances, which directly influences the service reliability and the production cost. In this paper, the bending strength, fracture toughness, Vickers hardness, and brittleness index of commercial (R1–xCex)30.5–31.5Febal.B1M1 magnets with different cerium contents have been investigated. The micro-fractures of the magnets were observed by a scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray analysis system. It shows that the bending strength and the fracture toughness of (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnets have a downward tendency with increasing Ce content x, while the Vickers hardness of the magnets varies irregularly with Ce contents in this paper. The optimum mechanical properties have been obtained in the (R1–xCex)30.5–31.5Febal.B1M1 magnet with $x = 0.15$ ; the bending strength, fracture toughness and brittleness index of the magnet with $x =0.15$ are obviously superior to those of the ordinary sintered Nd–Fe–B magnets. Some flocculent oxide phases have been discovered in the (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnet with $x = 0.15$ . The flocculent phases may absorb the crack propagating energy, and reduce the stress concentration at a crack tip, which is beneficial to strengthening and toughening of (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnets. However, the mechanical properties are obviously worse for the magnet with $x = 0.45$ (Ce/ $\sum $ RE = 45%). That is probably because the microstructures of the magnet with $x = 0.45$ become deteriorated, in which abnormally large grains have been observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents integrated inductors with Co-Zr-Ta-B (CZTB) thin films on flexible organic substrates for MHz–GHz applications. This paper demonstrated the fabrication and characterization of magnetic thin-film inductors on flexible organic substrates, such as polyimide and Ajinomoto build-up film thin films. These films have thicknesses of only tens of micrometer and thus are very flexible compared to the same inductor structures fabricated on rigid substrates, such as quartz. The magnetic films on flexible substrates were observed to maintain similar magnetic properties compared with those on Si substrate, but with greater coercivity likely due to the increased roughness of the substrate surface. The fabricated thin-film inductors on organic substrates with inductance $L$ , measured by RF characteristics, have shown significantly increased inductance compared to air-core inductors (without magnetic core materials). This paper also demonstrated a high frequency response, clearly over GHz, consistent with the CZTB type of materials. The frequency response, as well as inductance and Q values, remains similar even after many iterations of bending to a large degree, indicating the robustness of the inductor on flexible organic substrates, as well as that of the magnetic thin films. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes new two-dimensional magnetic recording (TDMR) systems using polar channel coding as practical error correction coding. It is known that the time and space complexities of the encoding/decoding algorithms based on polar channel coding are \mathcal O(N \log N) , where $N$ is the codeword (block) length. If we compare the error-correction performance of a polar code with that of a low-density parity-check (LDPC) code in the same rate, it is known that the polar code has a longer length and its decoder still has a lower implementation complexity than the LDPC decoder. Therefore, relatively low-complexity coding schemes are preferable for any TDMR systems under high rates and relatively long codeword lengths. In this paper, the proposed TDMR system serially concatenates a two-dimensional (2-D) modulation code with one-dimensional (1-D) polar codes in each down-track direction. These element polar codes are designed on the fundamentals of the channel polarization theory, which are applied for channels with memory. Actually, it evaluates the performance of the signal processing scheme with concatenated coding and generalized partial response equalization for the proposed TDMR system using bit-patterned media by computer simulations. As a result, it shows that the block error rate performance of the proposed TDMR system with the 2-D modulation and polar channel coding schemes is superior to that of the 1-D system with the conventional 1-D high rate modulation and LDPC coding schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a previous paper, we discussed wireless strain sensors, based upon the $\Delta E$ effect, employing a number of different field-annealed amorphous ribbons as resonators and transducers. In this paper, we present results for a polycrystalline (Fe0.8Al0.2)98B2 alloy as the transducer and either Metglas 2826MB3 or Beijing Yeke 1K501 as the resonator. Frequency variation curves and tensile stress tests were performed on the sensors. The FeAlB–amorphous alloys ensemble resulted in a linear behavior through a larger deformation amplitude than previously obtained. Gauge factors of up to 190 were obtained over a deformation amplitude of at least 300 ppm. The results are discussed in the light of the magnetization behavior of the materials involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transverse-flux motors have an advantage on realizing high torque density owing to their compatible design of a large number of poles and large magnetomotive force. However, many permanent magnets are required with increasing number of the poles, and that results in a big exertion for building magnet arrays. Thus, we have studied transverse-flux motors with a consequent-pole rotor having almost half amount of magnets compared with conventional magnet rotors. However, the consequent poles cause large cogging torque due to their deformed flux-density distribution. This paper presents magnetic-pole configuration for effectively reducing the cogging torque and its verification by magnetic analysis even though axially skewed configuration, commonly used, is difficult to be applied to transverse-flux motors due to their axially non-uniform structure. In this paper, radially skewed and unequally distributed configurations are introduced to the armature cores for eliminating the two most dominant harmonic components of the cogging torque. Analysis result indicates each configuration can eliminate the harmonic components selectively and effectively, and magnitude of the cogging torque decreases by 97.6%. These configurations can be applied to a wide variety of transverse-flux motors for eliminating any harmonic order of cogging torque, and can be considered to be promising techniques for realizing high torque density. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the newly proposed heating method named “secondary current heating method” to reduce the iron loss on laminated electrical steel sheet cores for high-efficiency electrical motors. It is well known that the magnetic properties of electrical steel sheets, which are used for electrical motor cores, are deteriorated by the residual stress during manufacturing of the electrical motors, and then the iron loss of the laminated electrical steel sheet cores of the electrical motors increases inevitably. The newly proposed secondary current heating method can improve the magnetic properties on laminated electrical steel sheet cores and reduce the iron loss of them in the very short time in comparison with conventional methods. In this paper, the electromagnetic and heating characteristics of the specimens by the proposed method were confirmed, and then it was applied into the laminated cores to reduce iron loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present systematic micromagnetic modeling investigation on recording process of segmented thin-film media with circularly polarized magnetic field at microwave frequencies. This paper provides insightful understanding about the segmented medium stack design in microwave-assisted magnetic recording (MAMR) by exploring the impact of signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio and recording track width. By utilizing segmentation of grains with exchange breaking layers, the ac magnetic field generated from spin torque oscillator can be best exploited. Via optimized medium stack design, MAMR is able to achieve both high SNR and areal density gain with the proposed notched-structure medium (top and bottom segments have the strongest crystalline anisotropy) compared with conventional graded medium (with gradually increasing anisotropy from top to bottom). By tuning crystalline anisotropy strength in top and bottom segment, we studied the MAMR behavior of SNR and track width under different ac frequencies. This provides a novel view for future segmented media design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pulsed magnetic field generation is a critical aspect of all nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments. In this paper, a novel design for a low field, low frequency (less than 5 MHz), pulsed magnetic field generation circuit suited for unilateral NMR applications is presented. A pulsed sinusoidal current is generated at an inductive load connected to an FET-based switch. The inductive load resonates at a frequency of approximately 2 MHz, which is also the precession frequency of ^1H protons in an external magnetic flux density of 500 G. The designed circuit can be tuned to operate at resonant frequencies of other chemical species as well. In this paper, the design parameters and operation of the prototype pulsed field generator will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with equivalent 2-D finite-element (FE) models of permanent magnet lead screw (PMLS), to accurately predict the thrust force. Due to the helical-shape permanent magnets (PMs), the magnetic fields of PMLS are typically 3-D and non-symmetric. However, the PMLS is approximately symmetric in some cases and an equivalent 2-D axis-symmetric FE model is developed instead of 3-D models. The problem lies in that no evaluation about the accuracy and applicability of the 2-D axis-symmetric FE model was offered in previous literature. In this paper, the 2-D axis-symmetric FE model is derived based on the concept of equivalent current sheets of PMs. The limitations of the existing 2-D axis-symmetric FE model are clarified, and a novel equivalent 2-D torque FE model is then proposed to predict thrust force with the gear ratio when the 2-D axis-symmetric FE model is not appropriate. It is shown that the choice of equivalent 2-D FE model depends on the lead angle of PMLS, 2-D axis-symmetric FE model is applicable in the range of (0°, 15°), and 2-D torque FE model is preferred in the range of (65°, 90°). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In some situations, only a limited number of measurements under a limited number of conditions may be available for analysis. This paper describes an approach for creating additional interpolated measurements in which both measurement noise as well as signal have appropriate values. This is important, for example, when evaluating the behavior of advanced readback channels where quantities, such as sector failure rate (SFR), change very abruptly from 0% to 100% in response to relatively small parameter changes. This means that a smooth interpolation of SFR between coarse measurement points is little help in determining the actual boundary of good performance. If, instead, interpolated waveforms are fed into the channel, the boundary of the region of good performance can be clearly identified. This paper formulates a solution for the general problem of noisy measurement (waveform) interpolation and then applies this approach specifically to the situation, where a series of spin-stand waveforms were captured at various reader positions and with various written track squeeze positions (i.e., a set of “747s”). Using this approach, realistic waveforms can now be created and the SFR evaluated at any arbitrary intermediate reader and writer positions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is dedicated to study the experimental validation of a numerical model based on La-Fe-Co-Si layered operating near room temperature. For the purpose of this paper, a numerical simulation based on the transient energy equations is proposed for modeling the heat exchange between the multilayer material and the carrier fluid in the regenerator bed with an applied magnetic field of 1.5 T. The main findings of the simulation show a comparison between the numerical model and experimental setup including the magnetocaloric effect of La-Fe-Co-Si, pressure drop, and exergy and exergetic efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to analyze the characteristics of a surface permanent-magnet Vernier motor (SPMVM) according to the pole ratio among the rotor magnet pole pairs, stator teeth, and winding pole number. The SPMVM has the same operational principle as a magnetic gear, and it is operated using the space harmonics of the air-gap flux density due to the magnetomotive force and air-gap permeance. In this paper, first, the design parameters of the SPMVM are specified based on an analytical calculation of the air-gap magnetic flux density. Moreover, various combinations of the rotor magnet pole pairs and stator teeth number are made and compared according to the operational principle of a Vernier motor using a 2-D finite-element method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fe–Ga (Galfenol) is a rare-earth-free alloy with useful magnetostrictive properties of nominal cost and robust mechanical properties advantageous for sensing, actuating, and energy harvesting. Understanding magnetostriction and magnetization behaviors under stress while at temperatures up to +250 °C is needed to explore the potential of harsh environment applications for magnetostrictive non-contact sensors, for use in applications such as monitoring torque changes in engines and rotorcraft shafts. Galfenol thin patches have the potential to operate in these applications, but alloy performance at these temperatures while under stress has not been studied. Thus, in this paper, we investigate simultaneous effects of temperature and compressive stresses on magnetic and magnetostrictive behaviors of single crystal Fe–Ga samples at temperatures from +25 °C to +250 °C while under compressive stresses of 0, 15, and 23 MPa. The samples are also subjected to temperatures up to +250 °C and no stress to acquire simultaneous magnetostriction and magnetization values. Building upon this experimental data, this paper attempts to relate temperature dependence and shape anisotropy to determine the effect on magnetic susceptibility at elevated temperatures. Understanding the roles of temperature and compressive stress as well as shape anisotropy on magnetostrictive, Fe–Ga alloys can provide an advanced understanding of the material properties and thus facilitate their use in a wider range of applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes an improved figure-of-eight coil for transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) by using the magnetic resonant coupling (MRC) effect, aiming to improve the treatment effect for psychiatric disorders. The proposed MRC-based figure-of-eight coil consists of two reverse-winding resonance coils, which embraces two series-connected source coils, respectively. Different from conventional figure-of-eight coils, the proposed topology can produce the resonant electromagnetic field to accumulate the stimulation energy. In such ways, the improved TMS system can effectively enhance the stimulation focality and depth while significantly reducing the requirement of the power supply, thus improving the safety as well as facilitating the miniaturization and portability. Last, this paper gives the simulated and experimental results to verify the theoretical analysis, which can further illustrate the feasibility of the proposed MRC-based figure-of-eight coil for TMS systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the purpose of saving energy resources, it is extremely expected to develop highly efficient electric motors. Different types of permanent magnet (PM) arrangement can significantly affect the performance of the motors. Conventionally, the arrangement of the PMs is determined by designer’s experience. This paper focuses on the optimal design of PM arrangement in PM synchronous motors (PMSMs). We present a general pattern of the PM arrangement in PMSM. By varying the parameters of the general pattern, it can produce different types of PM arrangement in the rotor. The employed approach combines the global optimization method with the finite-element method for solving the optimization of the PM structures. Based on the proposed general pattern and optimization methods, the best PM arrangement in the motor can be automatically determined. In order to reduce computing loading, this paper employs the response surface models for reducing the computing time of objective functions. In the end, numerical tests are designed to showcase the effectiveness of the proposed method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a novel transmission system supporting multi-path power flows for electric vehicles (EVs). It mainly consists of a coaxial magnetic gear (CMG), a lock, a clutch, and two electric machines (EMs). The key feature of the CMG is that its modulating ring can rotate freely. One of the EMs is integrated with the CMG, which constitutes an integrated magnetic gear permanent magnet machine. And the other is connected to the inner rotor of the CMG through a clutch and a shaft with a lock. By toggling the clutch, controlling the states of the lock and the two EMs, the proposed transmission system can achieve flexible power splits. It is very interesting that one of the EM can play the role of a flywheel storage device when necessary, which is capable of buffering the energy from regenerative braking, so as to protect the battery. In this paper, the configuration of the transmission system is illustrated; its operating principle is elaborated. Then, the electromagnetic design is conducted to meet the demands arising from EVs. Finally, the electromagnetic performances are analyzed by using finite-element method, which verifies the rationality of the electromagnetic design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper puts forward the design and analysis of an ironless permanent magnet machine for a micro wind power application. The proposed methodology includes comprehensive geometric, magnetic, and electrical dimensioning followed by detailed 2-D finite-element modeling of a synchronous generator. The configuration investigated in this paper shows the generators rotor fixed in the tip of the blades and illustrates the advantages of a large diameter for a microgeneration application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an engineering modeling methodology for magnetostrictive materials based on a simplified piezo-electric governing equation. For verifying the modeling performance, a proof-of-concept non-contact strain sensor utilizing a prototype magnetostrictive (Fe–Ga alloy, Galfenol) strip on a steel plate is used to evaluate sensor performance prediction. Typically, the performance of Galfenol is measured in a compressional load region because it has a higher response. However, in this paper, we are aiming to develop a sensor for tensile stress measurement. To achieve a compression effect from a tension load in the sensing element, a Galfenol strip is aligned perpendicular to a tension bar so that tension in the bar creates compression in the strip via the Poisson effect. The experimental setup in this paper consists of a polycrystalline Galfenol strip bonded in the horizontal direction of a steel dog-bone shaped tension specimen. Permanent magnets are attached at each end of the Galfenol strip to provide an even magnetic bias field through the strip. The magnetic flux through the Galfenol strip is measured with non-contact Hall sensors during the tensile load test. The simulation results agree well with the experiments for the value of $H$ studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The field calculus for electrical machines (EMs) is realized solving subdomain problems. Most often, the latter are solved using either finite element analysis (FEA) or the semi-analytical solution of a Laplace or Poisson equation obtained by separation of variables. The first option can capture complex geometries but becomes slow for high accuracy, whereas the second is fast but limited to simple periodic geometries and linear or infinite permeable materials. This paper presents the 2-D implementation of the spectral element method (SEM) for the modeling of EMs. The polynomial basis functions used to approximate the solution in each domain are reaching exponential convergence similar to the semi-analytical solution. Moreover, each element can be represented by a non-square shape resulting in the possibility to model complex geometries. Following the results in this paper, significantly fewer degrees of freedom are needed for the SEM to achieve the approximation similar to the FEA, and consequently less memory and computational time are required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vernier permanent magnet (VPM) machines for direct-drive applications are receiving more and more attention due to its small pulsating torque, high torque density at low rotation speed. This paper proposes a novel VPM machine, which has two stators and a sandwiched rotor. The outer stator is a conventional stator with three-phase windings and semi-closed slots, and the inner stator has an iron core and PMs mounted on the surface of it. The rotor has a consequent-pole structure with Halbach-array PMs. In this paper, the operation principles and the feasible slot-pole combinations of the proposed machine are analyzed. Moreover, to verify the superior performances of the proposed VPM machine, it is compared with a regular VPM machine in terms of back electromotive force, average torque, pulsating torque, power factor, efficiency, and overload capabilities. It shows that the proposed machine has higher torque density, larger efficiency, and lower cogging torque. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we introduce a new device based on a single current-carrying micro-ring that allows to transport and trap superparamagnetic particles at a pre-defined position. The technique is based on the superposition of the magnetic field gradient from the conductor ring and an additional homogeneous magnetic field. The functionality of the trap is discussed based on the magneto-static energy of the particle inside the area of the micro-ring and experimentally confirmed by trapping single superparamagnetic beads inside the ring. By observing the fluctuations of individual trapped Dynabeads particles, the viscosity of the surrounding medium can be measured on a microscopic scale from an evaluation of the mean square displacement (MSD) as a function of time. The viscosity obtained in this way differs for particles with different diameters, which is a consequence of the close proximity of the particles to the surface of the SiO2-passivated Si substrate. The long-time behavior of the MSD clearly reveals the confined Brownian motion as expected for trapped particles and allows to extract the trap stiffness as a function of current I and external magnetic field Bext. Our results show that the trap stiffness can be systematically tuned by varying I and Bext. The experimentally observed trap stiffness values are in good agreement to the predictions from numerically modeling the energy landscape in the vicinity of the energy minimum. For the trap used in this paper, a single superparamagnetic particle can be reliably positioned with a lateral accuracy of <1~\mu \textm over length scales >100~\mu \textm . This technique can be beneficially used for lab-on-chip systems in combination with magneto-resistive field sensors where particles have to be transported to the active sensor area, which is typically on the range of approximately 1 \mu \textm \times 1~\mu\textm . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the design, performance modeling, and evaluation of probabilistic logic using superparamagnetic nanomagnets for which there exists a strong interplay between deterministic dynamics and intrinsic thermal noise. The switching element in the spin domain is chosen as the giant spin-Hall effect (GSHE) device that operates based on the dipolar coupling phenomenon in a two-magnet system to achieve low-energy ( $\approx ~1.3$ fJ/b) and low-power ( $\approx ~0.5~\mu $ W) switching characteristics. The use of spin currents on the order of a few tens of mA/ $\mu $ m2 in the subcritical regime to operate the GSHE device yields nondeterministic switching behavior with probability of correctness less than 100%. Therefore, the proposed technique allows us to trade off circuit accuracy for tremendous reduction in energy and power dissipation. In this paper, we identify the required dimensions and material parameters of the read–write units to ensure robust magnetic dipolar coupling for reliable operation of the GSHE switch. Then, through Monte Carlo simulations, we evaluate the probabilistic switching behavior of the GSHE switch as a function of the input spin current amplitude and pulsewidth for various orientations of the magnetization vectors. The delay of the GSHE switch is quantified using a probability distribution function owing to the randomness imparted to the dynamics by intrinsic thermal noise of the nanomagnets. The relationship between the probability of correctness and the energy dissipation of the GSHE switch is quantified. The results are extended to evaluate the performance and circuit error rate of complex logic gates, such as NAND and NOR, constructed using the GSHE switch. It is shown that unlike the probabilistic CMOS (PCMOS) logic, the circuit error rate in the GSHE logic becomes a function of the input vector combination and the prior state of the switch. These nuances are captured in the compact model of the circuit error rate of multiple-input GSHE logic developed in this paper. The performance of the probabilistic GSHE logic is compared with that of PCMOS logic at the 14 nm technology node. Since the noise generation process in PCMOS logic has a limited bandwidth of tens of megahertz and consumes tens of microwatt power, the peripheral circuitry becomes prohibitive. By utilizing the inherent thermal stochasticity, nanomagnets provide a clear advantage to implement probabilistic computing platform targeted toward error-tolerant applications such as those from the image processing and machine learning domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a changeable winding brushless DC (BLDC) motor for the expansion of the speed region is described. The changeable winding BLDC motor is driven by a large number of phase turns at low speeds and by a reduced number of turns at high speeds. For this reason, the section where the winding changes is very important. Ideally, the time at which the windings are to be converted should be same as the time at which the voltage changes. However, if this timing is not exactly synchronized, a large current is generated in the motor, and the demagnetization of the permanent magnet occurs. In addition, a large torque ripple is produced. In this paper, we describe the demagnetization of the permanent magnet in a fault situation when the windings change, and we suggest a design process to solve this problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A self-start interior permanent magnet (IPM) motor can be a potential replacement of the conventional induction motor because of its high torque density, smaller size, higher efficiency, and power factor. Traditional self-start IPM motors are equipped with cage windings in the rotor for providing the starting as well as the damping torque. Cage-quipped IPM motors have limited starting and synchronization capabilities. This paper introduces a novel self-start radial flux (RF) hysteresis IPM motor. The rotor of the hysteresis IPM motor has a cylindrical hysteresis ring made of semi-hard magnetic material. High energy density Nd–B–Fe magnets are buried inside the rotor hysteresis ring. The ring is supported by a laminated steel sleeve, allowing the flux to travel radially inside the hysteresis ring. In this paper, the design and performance analysis of a 3-phase 4-pole 1-HP RF-hysteresis IPM motor is carried out using finite-element analysis. The performance of the designed RF-hysteresis IPM motor is compared with similar 1-HP circumferential flux type hysteresis and cage-equipped IPM motors. Based on analysis and simulation, the RF-hysteresis IPM motor demonstrates higher starting and synchronization capabilities than conventional self-start IPM motors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Typical vibrational harvesters using a high-permeability beam in a cantilever configuration exploit the field generated by a couple of counter-polarized permanent magnets facing the vibrating strip at the free end. Such a canonical position of the magnets does not permit one, however, to highlight the importance of the bias field pattern. A proof of concept archetype is realized in this paper, by which the influence of the magnetization profile along the length of the vibrating ferromagnetic beam is put in evidence. It demonstrates, in particular, that significant variations, even by a factor of three, of the output power can be obtained by a modification of the magnets arrangement. We discussed in this paper the behavior of a cantilever-based generator, where an Fe–Co high-permeability beam is made to vibrate inside an inhomogeneous magnetic field generated by permanent magnets, whose arrangement can modified in order to vary the magnetization profile along the vibrating laminae. The effects of such a profile are measured and analyzed by means of a simple 2-D numerical model, showing that the generated power can be enhanced by conveniently acting on the magnets configuration. The measurements show that, with a host acceleration of $5g$ rms ( g = 9.81$ m/ \text{s}^{2} ), a 6.72 mW time average output power is obtained for operating frequencies around 60 Hz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current models of the resonant magnetoelectric (ME) effect are based on Newton’s equation of motion and some given conditions which are various in published papers. Even some results are in conflict with Gauss’s law in magnetics. This paper provides the energy method to model ME effects. The energy method is based on linear constitutive equations and the principle of minimum energy. By constructing and solving the constraint problem of the variational principle, more reasonable conditions are deduced for simplifying Newton’s motion equation. The induced additional fields of externally applied fields are considered during the process of deducing by Gauss’s law for electricity or magnetism. The coefficients of direct/converse ME effects are obtained and compared with the models in the previous papers. The proposed model avoids conflict with Gauss’s law and provides another insight into understanding the resonant and static ME effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The estimation of fatigue crack depth profile is one of the most important issues in nondestructive evaluation techniques. In this regard, providing a method which is able to determine the error rate of the depth profile estimation will be significant. Although several methods have been proposed to estimate the depth profile with reasonable accuracy, these mentioned methods are unable to determine the error rate of estimation process. In this paper, to eliminate mentioned drawbacks, a first and second fuzzy approximation methodology is proposed to estimate the surface crack depth profile of an arbitrary crack in metallic structures based on alternating current field measurement signals. In the proposed method, it is feasible to achieve a definite error rate to determine the surface crack depth profile under evaluation. Next, to achieve the most reasonable accuracy and the least computational complexity simultaneously, a solution will be proposed for the method presented in this paper. Finally, the results of several common methods are compared with the method presented in this paper in analytical and experimental forms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent expansion of emerging wireless power transfer technology has not been followed by an adequate systematic approach to the magnetic couplers design. The relation between design parameters (mutual inductance, coupling coefficient, leakage field flux density, coil quality factor, and so on) and structural parameters (coils and ferrite shape, size, thickness, and so on) has not been thoroughly explored, and practical designs often depend on trial-and-error methods supported by the finite-element modeling simulation to verify a final design. In order to fill that gap, this paper describes the adoption of multi-objective hybrid particle swarm optimization (MOHPSO) and multi-objective real-numbered particle swarm optimization (MORPSO) algorithms for a circular coupler design to increase performances and automate the design process. Objectives of this paper are threefold: 1) apply MOHPSO and investigate if there are some unconventional structures of circular couplers capable of outperforming traditional designs; 2) identify a minimum set of key optimization parameters for a circular magnetic coupler; and 3) demonstrate the operation of an MORPSO algorithm to optimize a circular magnetic coupler. The Pareto front concept is applied to provide multi-objective optimization. Two different multi-objective function pairs are considered, the first pair being the coil coupling coefficient ( k ) and maximum leakage field magnetic flux density ( B\max ); for the second pair, the product between quality factor ( Q ) and k is combined with ( B\max ). To validate the optimization algorithm effectiveness and accuracy, a selected magnetic coupler is fabricated and tested. Due to superior execution time, and satisfactory optimization capabilities, the MORPSO algorithm is employed to generate a final optimum design. Collected measurements demonstrate a very good agreement between the experimental and simulation results. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper deals with an analytical model of the virtual air gap (VAG) function in order to define design rules when this technique is used inside complex devices. The establishment of those design rules constitutes the main originality of the developments presented in this paper, which are about a single-phase magnetic core. It is based on the definition of a nonlinear reluctance network that takes simultaneously into account the effects of dc and ac magnetic flux components in the disturbed area that contains the VAG. The results are validated using a finite-element analysis and experimentally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skin depth is an important parameter that quantifies depth of inspection of eddy current (EC) nondestructive testing. The formula which states that the skin depth is inversely proportional to the square root of the product of frequency, permeability, and conductivity has been widely used for calculating skin depth for many decades. It has been noticed that the true skin depth is less than that obtained by the formula when the EC is excited by the ac current in a pancake coil. In-depth and convincible explanation of this discrepancy has not been published. This paper studies this problem by finite-element analysis and concludes that the difference is due to two reasons. One is that the EC associated with pancake coil diffuses with increasing depth, whereas there is no diffusion effect of EC associated with uniform plane field which is the assumption of the conventional formula. The other reason is that the ECs induced by wire segments symmetric about the coil axis cancel each other and the cancellation becomes more severe with increasing depth due to the diffusion of EC. This paper also investigates the influence of each of coil parameters on skin depth. Then, a new formula for estimating skin depth is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The alignment dependence and angular dependence of coercivity (ALDC and ANDC, respectively) of aligned and isotropically aligned Ga-doped Nd14.79Ga0.57B5,24Co1.11Febal sintered magnets were analyzed, and the results were compared with those of ferrite magnets, which were reported in our previous paper. The coercivity of Ga-doped Nd-Fe-B magnets decreases as alignment improves. The ALDC of this magnet is similar to that of ferrite magnets. The angle of the magnetization-reversal area (AMRA) of the aligned Ga-doped magnets has at coercivity an angular tilt of 41.4°, which is wider than that of the ferrite magnets. The ANDC of Ga-doped Nd-Fe-B sintered magnets displays similar behavior with that of ferrite magnets but is slightly lower than that of ferrite magnets, which is expected from AMRA of Ga-doped Nd-Fe-B sintered magnets. These results support our proposed coercivity mechanism; specifically, the magnetic domain walls are pinned at grains with tilted easy magnetization directions or $c$ -axis tilted from the easy magnetization of the magnet. When the magnetic domain walls are de-pinned from the pinning sites, they jump through several grains, thereby determining the coercivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the demagnetization has been actively researched to reduce the magnetic field of a warship according to the development of the magnetic detection technology of the magnetic mines. In these studies, it was assumed that the warship was composed of one magnetic material in order to establish an effective deperming protocol. However, since the actual warship was composed of various materials, the magnetic interaction between the materials inevitably occurs during the demagnetization process. Due to the interaction, demagnetization may not be performed well. Therefore, in this paper, the effects of interactions in demagnetization of multiple materials were studied by using the Preisach model, and the optimal protocol was proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bridge of the interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine can reduce the leakage of the machine, which makes the utilization rate of the permanent magnet (PM) improved. However, the asymmetric saturation in the bridges will cause the asymmetry distribution of the magnetic potential on the rotor surface, which will bring challenges to the accurate calculation of inductances. Excited by the armature current at different initial phase angles, the flux distributions in the bridges are analyzed. Meanwhile, the reason why the asymmetric saturation exists in the bridges is revealed theoretically. Based on the above analysis, the rotor magnetic potential (RMP) model for an IPM machine with the bridges is established and used to calculate the armature reaction magnetic field and inductances of the IPM machine. In this paper, the RMP distribution in the bridges is obtained by considering asymmetric saturation, so the RMP model can reflect the rotor surface magnetic potential distribution more accurately, which is evident from the adjacent degree between the calculation results and the finite-element analysis (FEA) ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dyadic Green’s function (DGF) for the tensor surface conductivity boundary condition (TSCBC) is formulated in this paper. Electrically biased spatially dispersive graphene sheet, densely packed graphene strips under electric bias, and magnetically biased graphene nano-patch array can be treated as the special cases of the formulation by assigning proper values to the components of the surface conductivity. In the proposed problem, due to the anisotropic nature of surface conductivity, TE and TM modes are coupled. Based on this fact, scattering Green’s functions in the upper and lower regions of the interface are expanded in terms of an appropriate linear combination of vector wave functions. The unknowns are obtained after applying the necessary boundary conditions on the tangential components of the electric and magnetic Green’s functions. The validity of the technique is verified by calculating the propagation constant of surface waves, and reflectance and transmittance of a plane-wave by graphene-based structure for the electric and magnetic biases along with the spatially dispersive sheets. It is important to note that the numerical simulation of graphene interface with tensor surface conductivity using commercial software packages is challenging due to the lack of efficiently developed models in their libraries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The magnetic field-induced stress and strain of magnetic shape memory alloy (MSMA) are fundamental to describe its magnetomechanical behavior. In order to investigate the operating characteristics of MSMA-based actuator, this paper presents a 3-D quasi-static modeling approach of magnetomechanical behavior of MSMA with the improved constitutive equation by introducing the activation field strength. The relationships between three critical parameters of the activation field strength, the maximum of strain, as well as the saturation field strength, and the pre-compressing force are obtained by fitting the data collected from the experiment. Two kinds of test specimen in different geometric dimensions are studied by the numerical modeling method. Considering that the key material parameters vary dramatically depending on the size and composition, verifications through experiments show that this numerical modeling and simulation can accurately describe the force and deformation characteristics of MSMA. The modeling analysis and simulation results are significant to design of the actuator based on MSMA to predict the actuator performance under the given working conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of electric and hybrid electric vehicles has drawn more attention toward the development of high power density electrical machines. The materials used in the fabrication of electrical machines play a crucial role in enhancing their power density. In this paper, the significance of advanced magnetic materials for lamination, nano-material based conducting materials, and high energy product permanent magnets (PMs) is discussed in detail. Finally, a case study has been presented with a 5 kW PM synchronous machine in order to understand the advantages of the discussed materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brushless doubly fed generator (BDFG), a class of adjustable-speed machine with a special structure, shows great prospect in wind power generation. Since different rotor structures lead to great differences in the BDFG performance, the research of BDFG rotor structure has been a hotspot. However, only a few of the research studies have paid attention to the rotor and stator slot combination of the BDFG, especially for the BDFG with a novel hybrid rotor. Improper slot combination will lead to efficiency decrease, additional loss increase, and undesirable torque in an electrical machine. In order to study the principle of slot combination of the BDFG with the hybrid rotor, the combination approach of theoretical analysis and experiments is presented in this paper. Furthermore, a coupling factor which reflects the coupling ability of the BDFG with different slot combinations is proposed. Moreover, the best slot combination of the proposed BDFG is determined, and several parameters such as useful harmonic contents, total harmonic voltage distortion (THDu), core loss, and copper loss are considered as major criteria for judgment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To achieve a high track density, two-dimensional magnetic recording (TDMR) is combined with shingled magnetic recording (SMR). SMR makes it possible to record 1 bit on a few grains. However, the performance will be remarkably deteriorated by the increased media noise, the inter-track and inter-symbol interference (ITI and ISI). Therefore, the application of effective equalization and error control coding are required. In this paper, we investigate a simple block-based neural network equalizer (NNE) that mitigates the influence of ITI and ISI. We compare the equalization effects of the NNE and a conventional 2-D equalizer with low-density parity-check (LDPC) coding based on a random Voronoi grain media model. Simulation results show the proposed block-based NNE achieves better bit error rate performance than the conventional 2-D linear equalizer followed by the a posteriori probability (APP) detector and a sum-product (SP) decoder. In addition, we find the block-based NNE is sensitive to write errors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A partitioned stator-flux reversal (FR) permanent magnet machine (PS-FRPMM) is a new combination of a stator PM machine and a magnetically geared machine and has the specifications of both machines in terms of robust structure and torque density. In this paper, a comprehensive 2-D analytical model is developed for PS-FRPMM based on subdomain technique. The presented model has the capability to accurately and quickly investigate the effects of design parameters on the machine performance. The 2-D analytical model is evaluated on two case studies with 12 stator teeth and 10 rotor poles, and 18 stator teeth and 13 rotor poles, with four different magnetization patterns. The influences of various design parameters such as the rotor slot width, slot opening width, and the segment ratio of the PMs in the two-segment magnetization pattern have been investigated on the quantities, such as the instantaneous torque, torque ripple, unbalanced magnetic force (UMF), and electromotive force (EMF). For evaluating the presented analytical model, the 2-D finite element method (FEM) with and without saturation effects has been used. The comparative study between the analytical and numerical models shows good agreement. Finally, a 3-D FEM has been used, and the results of the 2-D analytical model and 3-D FEM are compared in terms of the accuracy and computational time. The results show that the presented model has lower computational time compared to the 2-D and 3-D FEM, while its accuracy is acceptable under different circumstances, such as saturation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]