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Artificial Intelligence (AI) has started to impact many facets of the economy and people's routine activities. This article contributes to our understanding of how the legal system is reacting to the ongoing uptake of AI and the disputes or right infringements this uptake creates. Select legal cases regarding the use of AI technology for automated decisions are reviewed, with a focus on filings in Europe and the USA. This exercise reveals which type of legal challenges can be expected when it comes to deploying automated systems in these jurisdictions. Additionally, incipient regulatory efforts targeting AI on both sides of the North Atlantic are introduced and briefly discussed. The paper sheds light on how different legal systems accommodate an emerging technology with disruptive potential and offers a mapping of exemplary legal risks for prospective actors or organisations seeking to develop and deploy AI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The financial crisis in 2008 and the COVID-19 pandemic today have made it clear that both financial and medical crises spread pervasively across borders. The financial crisis proved that the health of the entire European banking system stands and falls with the health of a single systemically important bank. As such, in the past decade, European Union (EU)-wide cooperation and regulation have been strengthened to ensure financial health across Europe. Today, the COVID-19 crisis reveals the de facto existence of a European healthcare system, where Member States’ medical health is interlinked and challenged. It too highlights the need for a more coordinated approach. This paper will draw lessons from European financial regulation and stress testing to make recommendations for EU-wide healthcare. The paper will show the latent benefits that a stress test might have on healthcare performance through mechanisms of governmentality. Moreover, it will pinpoint shortcomings in the financial stress test that could pose looming dangers for a European Health Union, such as a lack of de facto risk sharing. The paper concludes with pragmatic suggestions for a way forward in European healthcare regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the COVID-19 pandemic, whistleblowers have become the essential watchdogs disrupting suppression and control of information. Many governments have intentionally not disclosed information or failed to do so in a timely manner, misled the public or even promoted false beliefs. Fierce public interest defenders are pushing back against this censorship. Dr Fen and Dr Wenliang were the first whistleblowers in China to report that a new pandemic was possibly underway, and ever since, numerous other whistleblowers around the world have been reporting on the spread of the virus, the lack of medical equipment and other information of public interest. This paper maps the relevant whistleblowing cases in China, the USA and Europe and shows that many whistleblowers are initially censored and face disciplinary measures or even dismissals. At the same time, whistleblowing during the COVID-19 pandemic has drawn public attention to the shortcomings of institutional reporting systems and a wider appreciation of whistleblowers as uniquely placed to expose risk at early stages. Ultimately, whistleblowing as a means of transparency is not only becoming ever less controversial, but during COVID-19 it has become the "remedy" to censorship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares Initial Public Offerings (IPOs) and equity crowdfunding with Initial Coin Offerings (ICOs) and explores the corresponding risks and limitations of these different fundraising practices, with a view to analysing the extent to which the latter should be subject to the same regulatory framework as the former. After assessing the underlying principles and current regulatory framework for IPOs and equity crowdfunding, with a focus on Europe and the US, we investigate the possibility of applying existing financial regulations to ICOs. Drawing from the notion of "functional equivalence", we contend that many ICOs share a sufficient number of similarities with traditional IPOs and equity crowdfunding, to be regulated in a similar manner. However, given the various attempts by token issuers to escape from the scope of securities laws by assigning a different function to their ICOs tokens, we argue that principle-based regulation based on an in-depth risk-analysis could be an effective way of addressing the regulation of ICOs, thereby moving from "functional equivalence" to "risk equivalence". Finally, we explore the use of blockchain technology as a regulatory technology, incorporating specific rules and constraints into the technological fabric of an ICO, in order to ensure compliance with the fundamental principles of financial regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to secure their fishery products market share in the EU, third countries, especially the developing ones, tend to transplant EU requirements into their domestic legal order. In reality, theses transplanted laws do not correspond to measures to reach a level of protection needed by the country of destination. Based upon the case of Benin, this paper intends to show that when these legal transplants are adversely made, they can in some cases have disastrous effects. It can be argued that an unintended result of EU policy was that it contributed to the collapse of the shrimp industry in Benin. The paper moreover argues that despite the stringency of the EU requirements, the implementation of its control policy might inadequately protect European consumers of shrimp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public food safety authorities in Europe and elsewhere have recently developed forms of coordination and collaboration with private compliance systems in the monitoring and enforcement of public food safety laws. Such policies bring with them the risk of regulatory capture, loss of transparency and fuzzy accountability relationships. In this paper we analyse how the Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA) assesses and monitors the functioning of private food safety control systems so it can use these private systems in its own enforcement activities. We do so by discussing two national private systems that have been formally accepted by the NVWA and are as such subject to its meta-control. The article examines the safeguards that the public enforcement agency uses while coordinating its own activities with private food safety controls, the advantages and risks involved in this strategy, and the extent to which this policy can be improved. From this we draw lessons for public agencies elsewhere willing to engage with private compliance mechanisms. The study is based on the analysis of policy documents, public and private regulation and open-ended interviews with representatives of the public and private sector in the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the emerging risk communication challenges linked with shale gas development in the U.S. and Europe. These challenges are contested risk information, changing information needs and risk perceptions, and communicating risk-benefit tradeoffs of natural gas development. It provides a background of shale gas development which requires novel technologies that use large amounts of water, sand, and chemical under high pressure.

The article discusses risk regulation reflex with regards to the safety regulations in former Communist nations. It examines risk regulation reflex with regards to inspections and the burden and regulatory ineffectiveness that it may lead to. It explores why inspection is regarded as the most important tool of regulatory delivery. It also tackles the trends in Europe which include the lack of cost-benefit analysis.

It is a striking feature of European Union (EU) health law and policy that it has developed in a relative lack of awareness from the general public. This situation can be partly explained by the existence of only a limited competence in the field and the recourse to other legal bases to enact public health measures, particularly Article 114 TFEU. The use of internal market powers to conduct EU health policy has given rise to several problems, affecting the legitimacy of EU action and its capacity to adequately protect human health. Only a Treaty change can provide the EU with the clear competence and the solid legislative powers that it needs to tackle the various health challenges that Europe faces and will continue to face. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shortcomings in the handling of COVID-19 highlighted the salience of health and safety at work and fuelled discussions surrounding the desirability of a European Health Union. This article conceptualises occupational health and safety at the European Union (EU) level as a key driver for the creation of a European Health Union. Through recourse to the area’s roots and its relevance to the tackling of the COVID-19 pandemic, the benefits of putting occupational health and safety in the driving seat are set out. The implications of maintaining a healthy workforce are acute, from both a social and a public health perspective, especially in the time of a pandemic. Relying on a reflective approach that goes beyond the status quo, this article offers pragmatic yet imaginative proposals for strengthening the occupational health and safety acquis. The proposals act as the blueprint for health and safety in the workplace to lay the foundation for a European Health Union and advance the social dimension of the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Underground kitchens, public fridges and local meals at strangers' homes offer an interesting and economically attractive alternatives to traditional channels of food distribution. The new practices of food sharing facilitated by technological development and using new social media combine an interest in modern engaged consumerism with a promise of more sustainable food chains and waste reduction. The main objective of this article is to map and analyse the risks and regulatory challenges posed by the variety of emerging sharing economy practices in the food sector. Drawing on the identification of the key features of sharing economy and the specificity of food in that context, this article discusses various forms, scales and motivations behind the existing food sharing initiatives. The article describes three main categories of food sharing models, namely harvest sharing, meal sharing and leftover sharing, and illustrates them with concrete examples of networks or platforms. Against this background, the article scrutinizes the major risks and challenges of food sharing, ranging from individual and public health and safety to market fragmentation. Reviewing the available regulatory options to address these risks, and juxtaposing them with the risks stemming out of regulatory intervention as such, the contribution calls for balanced approach to food sharing governance in the European Union. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the transparency in the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) negotiations. The significant opportunity of the TTIP for creating a process for regulatory cooperation, harmonization, and convergence is tackled. The Europe precautionary principle's (PP) relation to post-modernism, and its influence on European Union (EU) regulatory procedure and science is also explored.

The article reports on the emergence of advances in the field of synthetic biology. Developments in synthetic biology have reportedly resulted in additional regulatory challenges, particularly in relation to ethics and governance risks. Europe is considered the most challenging area in terms of regulating biosynthetic technologies, given its diverse culture and varying ethical stands taken by each member state. Countries in Europe use either hazard or risk-based approach in risk regulation.

The article discusses food irradiation regulations of several nations including European Union members where there is a regulatory standstill since 1999. It states that the existing approach in Europe does not appear in line with the methods used under internationally-recognised standards. It offers information on food irradiation, on how it works, as well as its history and international regulation.

The article discusses the legislation on genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe. It notes the need to amend regulation on the release of GMOs to the market. It also mentions the impact of regulatory framework for GMOs to the multiple interests at stake including environmental, scientific and industrial. Other interests are also discussed.

The article discusses the authorisations of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe. It notes the two principle instruments that governed GMOs which are the Deliberate Release Directive and the Food and Feed Regulation. It mentions the General Food Law Regulation highlighting the principle of science-based regulation.

The article presents a case study of the safety on the use of amino acid in Europe. It notes that catabolism of amino acids is a good energy source and some amino acids should be taken daily for good and healthy diet. However, it also mentions potential health risk in taking amino acids of inferior quality. It says that regulation on the use of amino acids should adopt safety lessons from outside the European Union since the amino acids regulatory framework is still to be created.

The article focuses on the regulatory framework in Europe for its financial sector. It offers a brief outline of the financial system which comprises of financial markets and instruments and explains the framework of financial regulatory bodies and business operators. It discusses the models of supervision of financial markets in Europe to comply with international standards and also describes the efforts being made to overcome the systemic crisis being faced by the financial markets.

The article focuses on the series of milk crises in China relating to food safety. It explores on the components of risk assessment in two major food safety laws which include the Law on the Quality and Safety of Agricultural Products and the Food Safety Law. It also navigates on the new Chinese risk assessment framework particularly relating to the melamine milk scandal in China and the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in Europe.

The article discusses three court cases related to European legislative acts on the assessment and management of chemical risks, highlighting the article by Ragnar Loftsted published within the issue. The Pfizer Animal Health SA v. Council of the European Union on the Council's decision to ban the growth promoter Virginiamycin. Another case is the Sweden v. Commission involving the authorisation of the pesticide paraquat. Another is the Gowan-judgment regarding the use of pesticide fenarimol.

The article offers the author's comments on the article by professor Ragnar Loftstedt on European chemical risk regulation, published within the issue of the journal. It highlights the significance of identifying the distinction between risk and hazard in improving apprehension of risk assessment and explores the challenges of communicating risk assessment methodology. Recommendations from Loftstedt on improving decision-making on European risk regulations are mentioned.

The article focuses on the debate in Europe on the issue of regulating chemicals based on intrinsic hazard or risk assessment. It offers a brief historical overview of the risk against hazard debate as well as examines the regulation of European regulators toward the chemical compounds Bisphenol A and Deca BDE. The discrepancies between Member States with regulatory agencies within Member States which is inferred to be providing difficulty on regulatory decision-making is discussed.

The article discusses the regulation of the synthetic chemical Bisphenol A (BPA) in the production of baby and children's products in the European Union. It analyzes the regulatory process of BPA in the EU to understand how uncertain risks are being regulated. The current development of the regulatory process hopes to address the ongoing struggle in regulating endocrine disruptors like BPA in baby commercial products.

The article discusses the importance of the conceptual distinction between risks and hazards on the implications of risk-based versus hazard-based regulation in Europe. It focuses on the article "Risk versus Hazard - How to Relate in the 21st Century," by Ragnar Loftstedt, published within the issue of the journal, which provides a significant perspective on the relationship between science and regulatory decisions. The issue of the hazard-based communication is mentioned.

The article presents a comment from the author on the article by Ragnar Loftstedt regarding the risk regulation in Europe. It discusses the development of the European risk regulation model, particularly its turn towards evidence-based regulation. It highlights the risk regulation on chemical compounds Bisphenol A and decabromodiphenyl (deca-BDE), wherein Loftstedt notes the significance of a scientific and risk-based European-wide policy making.

The article offers the author's views on the article by professor Ragnar Loftstedt on European chemical risk regulation, published within the issue of the journal. It focuses on the issue regarding the concepts of risk versus hazard assessments, particularly in ensuring a balance between the level of protection for human health and the environment while maintaining the competitiveness and standard of living. The significance of understanding the concepts of chemical regulation is suggested.