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Numerous studies have documented the critical market barriers that suppress consumer investments in energy efficiency well below economically optimal levels. Meanwhile, the policy imperatives for increasing such investments - particularly the need to address global climate change - have never been more compelling. This paper examines how a new policy construct - an energy efficiency feed-in-tariff (EE FiT) - might be designed to address this problem. While an EE FiT will not always be the best approach, its potential benefits merit serious consideration where alternative programmatic routes to efficiency are not well-established. In particular, EE FiTs offer the potential to create new markets and enable new market entrants to uncover and deliver EE resources. This market-based approach may also have advantages in jurisdictions facing political objections to other methods of funding efficiency initiatives. However, as the European experience with FiTs for renewable power reveals, any jurisdiction considering adoption of an EE FiT will need to consider a range of questions, both fundamental and practical. This paper identifies key policy issues and options for EE FiT design. No jurisdiction to date has created an explicit EE FiT; this paper draws on experience in Europe with white certificate programmes, and in the US with utility efficiency mandates and regional capacity markets, in particular the "standard offer" programmes that have been offered by obligated entities over the past two decades. The standard offer programmes differ from a pure efficiency FiT, as they have been offered as part of a portfolio of measures designed jointly to meet an energy savings obligation, not as the fundamental policy construct for achieving savings. Nevertheless, they offer valuable insights into the policy and implementation choices that would need to be made to enable an EE FiT to effectively deliver on its promise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption reduction and energy efficiency improvement are recognized as global priorities in the context of the green economy and sustainable development. In this paper, determinants of energy efficiency and energy consumption for the panel of 11 post-communist countries in the Eastern Europe during 1996-2013 are investigated. The stochastic frontier function approach and comparative analysis were used to examine long-run dynamic relations. The research results show that GDP growth is a key factor increasing both energy efficiency and energy consumption. The research results on energy efficiency relations show that CO2 emissions per capita, a fixed capital and the share of industry in the economy are other important drives. In the context of per capita energy consumption growth, the factors of structural changes determined by industry share in the national economy and innovation concerned with development and implementation of high technologies are significant. The European Union accession and participation in the European energy policy promote to energy efficiency improvements in the post-communist countries while progress in governance and enterprise restructuring as measured by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development is not important for energy efficiency and per capita energy consumption in the post-communist countries. According to the research results, energy efficiency policy in the sample countries should be aimed at providing further economic growth enhancing a positive impact of other factors and implementing energy efficiency projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the accommodation of renewable energy and privatisation of electric supply industry in Europe. It states that the energy accommodation would incur big costs, while the industry privatization would allow the industry to become competitive, diverse, and would prompt low electricity prices. The article also discusses consequences of the privatization, electric generation technologies, and electric supply network in Great Britain.

During the 1990s there was great attention and debate in the European Union (EU) and in OECD countries outside the EU on the use of voluntary agreements to attain environmental and sustainable energy policy goals. At the time there was a lot of theoretical analysis and discussions on this policy instrument and in particular on its effectiveness and cost efficiency. Before the debate was over, a number of important voluntary agreements to improve energy efficiency or reduce CO, emissions were implemented in Europe both at national and European levels. These voluntary agreements cover end-use equipment and appliances (e.g. cars, electric motors, residential appliances, etc.), industrial processes, and industrial energy management policies and practices. The paper classifies and analyses the different types of voluntary agreements aiming at improving energy efficiency in Europe, and reviews voluntary agreements and other initiatives of similar nature (voluntary programmes, unilateral commitments, self-regulation) in industrial sectors in a number of Member States of the European Union. The paper also examines some successful European initiatives of voluntary nature, including unilateral agreements for improved energy efficiency of end-use equipment, such as the European agreement on energy consumption of washing machines, and the European agreement on power consumption in standby mode of televisions and video cassette recorders (VCRs). The paper concludes that, if set up under the right institutional framework (as presented and discussed in the paper), voluntary agreements can deliver energy savings in a flexible and cost effective manner and could represent an important instrument for improving energy efficiency and climate change mitigation, in addition and co-ordination with other important policy instruments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pan-European opinion surveys are carried out regularly in all European member states on behalf of the European Commission. From time to time, these 'Eurobarometer' surveys focus on energy related issues. This paper draws on three such surveys across a period of almost 20 years (1984, 1993 and 2002) in order to examine temporal trends in individual actions and intentions concerning energy efficiency across European member states. The main focus is on broad energy efficiency measures and the differences in stated actions and intentions over time and between countries. The paper examines whether actions and intentions differ according to socio-economic factors such as age, gender and education, and whether these differences are stable over time. Levels of public support for different types of energy efficiency instruments are also examined. The paper indicates that reported actions concerning energy efficiency have remained relatively stable over time in most European countries but intentions to do more have declined. Socio-economic variables such as age, gender and education appear to influence actions and intentions to save energy, suggesting that there is a social divide regarding energy conservation. Evidence suggests that many Europeans believe that they have already done what they can in terms of reducing their own energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

faces a growing import dependency over the next decades. Europe's neighbouring regions are endowed with substantial reserves and resources which can cover the increasing European import requirements in the medium to long term. With the development of its different uses, especially for power generation, gas is increasingly gaining importance for European energy security of supply. A substantial captive demand has indeed developed during the past decade, which explains the essential role the EU gives to natural gas in its energy policy. Securing and increasing gas supply will, however, require huge investments on all the segments of the gas chain, namely exploration and development, international transit and downstream infrastructures (gas lines and storage). These investments will be realised by energy companies and will, therefore, require an appropriate investment climate, which not only involves economic considerations but also a stable environment, a clear regulation and the possibility for operators to develop necessary strategic partnerships. This paper assesses the future long term (2010-2020-2030) gas import requirements and external supply potential for Europe, and identifies future gas corridor infrastructure needs taking into account a reserve/resource analysis, production and demand outlooks, export infrastructure and projects, supply costs as well as institutional, strategy and geopolitical issues, etc. Finally, the paper identifies investment barriers for different types of gas corridor infrastructure projects and proposes issues to be addressed by policymakers in order to put in place a favourable environment regarding investment promotion and to create a sustainable gas market for the long term. The paper is based on the work carried out by OME in the framework of the ENCOURAGED (Energy Corridor Optimization for the European Markets for Gas, Electricity and Hydrogen) project financed by the European Commission DG-Research 6th Research and Development Framework Programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the European economists' view on energy policy statements made by the Commission of European Communities. The European Union issued energy policy statements including "Green Paper: A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy," "The Energy Challenge: Energy Review Report 2006," and "Global Energy Security." The said statements have certain similarities and pertinent distinctions. The common feature is that they attempt to appeal to all interest groups. Each claims to aim an achieving goal concerning energy efficiency, global energy security, and protection of the environment.

European energy policy has not faced up to something about which there is increasingly little doubt: global reduction, or even stabilisation in energy use will not be achieved unless Europe and the other rich OECD countries aim at significantly curbing their energy services (heat, light, motive power, mobility and so on). The policy makers at the centre of the policy discourse on energy sustainability suffer from a form for self-deception which revolves around the equation of 'efficiency' with 'reduction' and 'sustainability', i.e., the untenable contention that technological and market efficiency alone will offset continued growth in energy services to the extent that deep reductions in energy use are possible. Many researchers and environmentalists seem to have, partly for strategic reasons, adapted to this view and thereby supported politicians in the selfdeception. In this paper we use results from India and China, with more than one third of the world population, to show how there is likely to be dramatic increases in energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in those countries over the next halfcentury. Much of this increase will be in conjunction with the development of basic services and infrastructure for homes, businesses, transport, health and public services, so that it is neither ethical nor even practical to argue for restrictions in overall energy growth in these and other developing countries. This places the onus for deep reductions in energy use on Europe, North America and the other affluent countries. The paper explores what such a change of focus would mean for policy and research agendas, and why there is friction to moving the policy envelope from 'efficiency' to also include 'sufficiency'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the wind industry has undergone considerable development worldwide, thanks mainly to state support for renewable energy embodied in various standards and initiatives. However, the situation differs significantly among the main world producers of electricity from wind power, and in some, we can find incomplete energy policies and regulatory frameworks, which have led to very different economic and social outcomes. In this paper, we present a comparative study of wind policies (based on a multidisciplinary approach) in the leading countries of Europe, Asia and America, in order to establish a comprehensive framework for the sector's future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how power generation in the European Union (EU) can be modernised along the lines of a sustainable solution pursuant to WEC principles. This means a re-design with the goal of implementing the EU's internal market and far-reaching decarbonisation.The example of Germany's energy U-turn shows one possible route, one that is marked by a massive expansion of renewable energies coupled with a phase-out of nuclear energy. Other European countries are pursuing different strategies. Current developments show that solutions chosen in any one country have direct implications for its neighbours. This is because electricity markets are continuing to grow together. In a spirit of solidarity between the member states, the closest possible review and coordination and/or harmonisation of policies are needed. This will allow the conversion process, which is associated with macro- economic costs, to be shaped on a cost-efficient basis.For utilities, the energy turnaround brings with it a multitude of challenges. Utilities must convert their generation portfolio and, in particular, perceptibly increase their share of low- carbon energies. Conventional power plants must be designed flexibly, so that - besides volatility in consumption - fluctuations in the feed-in of renewable energies, too, can be offset. In addition to this technical requirement, energy suppliers are facing a situation in which the utilisation period of conventional power stations is falling as a result of the growing feed-in of renewables. On top of this comes the fact that wholesale electricity prices on sunny days are pushed down despite high demand owing to the growing feed-in of electricity from photovoltaic systems. Both factors limit the options for obtaining the necessary contributions to cover fixed costs on the market. This raises the issue of the market design of the future. The launch of capacity mechanisms, ie remuneration for the product 'firm capacity' supplementing the income obtained from the sale of electricity, could help. At the same time, capacity mechanisms could be a suitable instrument for coping with power failures.This brings politics into the game. With electricity markets growing together, the central requirement to be met by a capacity-market mechanism is that harmonised regulations, a discrimination-free design and technology neutrality are ensured throughout Europe. This is regarded as indispensable for creating a level playing field.Also as regards reaching the goal of Europe's climate policy, viz. a lowering of greenhouse- gas emissions by at least 80% by 2050 compared with 1990, the rule must be to prioritise European solutions over any national regulation. In addition, a procedure in climate policy that is more stringently reviewed at international level is considered unavoidable. Cost efficiency in reaching climate goals means backing market instruments. CO2 emissions trading should be accorded the role of leading instrument in climate protection. The instrument can be used to achieve agreed quantity targets for CO2 emissions reliably and at the least possible costs.One argument in favour of anchoring the trade in emissions as leading instrument to shape a sustainable energy supply is that the costs of transforming the energy system can be kept within bounds. Renewable energies enter the system with rising CO2 prices on a market- driven basis. The various technologies compete with one another and with other CO2- avoidance technologies, like increases in efficiency, utilisation of nuclear energy and CO2 capture and storage (CCS).One current study says that the expected growth in electricity consumption in the EU by some 1,000 TWh by 2050 will be covered by adding renewable energies if the focus is on trade in emissions as leading instrument. This doubles the share of renewables in power generation by 2050 to about 50%. After 2030, with rising CO2 prices, CCS, too, becomes profitable. If we were to rule out this technology for lowering CO2, much higher costs for the aimed-at decarbonisation of power generation would have to be accepted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Southeast Europe Cooperation Initiative Transmission System Planning Project (SECI TSP) is a unique development assistance collaboration supported by the transmission system operators of Southeast Europe (SEE), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the United States Energy Association (USEA). Members of the SECI TSP include 10 transmission system operators from Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania and Turkey. Slovenia, Greece and Italy participate in the SECI TSP as observers.This paper provides a brief introduction to the SECI TSP and reviews results of a SECI TSP study of the capacity of the high voltage electricity transmission network in SEE to integrate wind power. The analysis results from wind power plant (WPP) data collected and verified by 12 TSOs (including Slovenia and Greece) through a series of detailed questionnaires (324 inputs collected) and intensive regional cooperation supported by USAID and USEA since 2000. Besides that, large set of input data on hourly WPP generation profiles for each SECI country for the 2020 planning horizon was employed from the Pan-European Market Database (87,600 output data). Historical data on WPP generation was used as a reference when such data was available, as well as the data available from the national wind integration studies.The study identifies limiting factors for large scale WPP integration in SEE, contains an analysis of expected WPP output variation, forecasts reserve capacities in the region, identifies network bottleneck resulting from large scale wind integration, and calculates the impact of WPP on regional network losses.The study results indicate that owing to the sub-regional characteristics of wind patterns, the countries of SEE could reduce by approximately 50% the amount of reserve capacity needed to balance intermittent wind production if such capacity is provided on a regional basis as opposed to the traditional country-by-country approach. This would open up more than 2,000MW of capacity to be available to the regional electricity market as opposed to holding them in reserve on an individual, country-by country basis. Also, more than 30 regional network bottlenecks were identified as a result of large scale WPP integration through different load flow scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of the factors involved in public perceptions of CO2 storage projects reveal a level of complexity and diversity that arguably confounds a comprehensive theoretical account. To some extent, a conceptual approach that simply organises the relevant social scientific knowledge thematically, rather than seeking an integrated explanation, is as useful as any single account that fails to do justice to the contingencies involved. This paper reviews and assembles such knowledge in terms of six themes and applies these themes to five European cases of carbon capture and storage (CCS) implementation. We identify the main factors involved in community responses to CCS as relating to: the characteristics of the project; the engagement process; risk perceptions; the actions of the stakeholders; the characteristics of the community, and the socio-political context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the status of renewable energy sources in Europe. It is stated that an implied contribution of the renewable energy sources to an endurable energy system has been adopted at the national, European and global level. The scope of renewable energy at the European level has been increasing over the years. It is targeted that the primary share of the renewable energy sources of the European energy mix will increase by 20 percent by 2020. Least cost allocation methods would be implemented for the development of renewable energy sources in Europe.

Do Member States (MS) show clear signs that they are abating their GHG emissions? In view of recent trends in emissions, are the Burden Sharing Agreement targets too ambitious for the MS and, particularly, for the cohesion countries? Would this provide an argument for the revision of these targets? This paper tries to answer these questions, which have been asked in Europe at both the policy and academic level. It proposes and develops a set of indicators and applies them to the EU context, assessing the likely trends in GHG emissions in Europe. The main conclusion is that the cohesion countries should not ask for a renegotiation of targets. Their emissions have increased beyond their economic growth patterns because of the weak implementation of both institutional and technological measures aimed at GHG mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kyoto protocol was the first step taken by governments towards implementing the Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992). This seeks to prevent dangerous 'global' warming and its impacts; the assumption being that all or most of this warming is caused by human action and is therefore susceptible to mitigation. Only governments in developed countries have so far committed themselves to emission reduction targets and thus to potentially major interventions in their economies and societies. At Kyoto, in December 1997, developed countries negotiated national commitments. Their net reductions of six greenhouse gases measured from a 1990 baseline, are to be achieved between 2008 and 2012. However, Australia may increase its net greenhouse gas emissions by 8%, while the UK agreed to a cut by 12.5%, considerably above the EU average cut of 8%. Examples of 'common but differentiated' responsibility have major economic implications, especially for trade. The mandatory British reduction target - if the Kyoto Protocol comes into force - is considerably below a promised 20% reduction, a target to which the UK government remains committed. This paper asks why the EU/UK and Australia adopted such different positions. It does so by analysing internal factors and forces that have shaped domestic policies. It is argued that while similar motivations produced different outcomes, the Australian government also received less biased and broader advice from its experts. The Australian case, as well as that of the EU/UK, thus presents a most interesting contrast to Swedish climate policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study discusses alternative ways of achieving optimum energy efficiency for historic buildings in areas where sustainable energy projects are planned. About 25% of Europe's building stock was constructed before the mid-20th century and despite EU's strenuous efforts for the protection and conservation of historic buildings and complexes, achieving energy efficiency with the minimum or preferably no intervention remains as a requirement. The settlement of Monemvasia, has been selected as our case study. A model building was chosen, its special characteristics are presented, and four solutions to the energy efficiency upgrade of the building were tested: (a) the application of internal insulation, (b) a heat pump installation, (c) the application of roof insulation, and (d) the replacement of the internal doorframes. The four scenarios were simulated via the TEE-KENAK software and the percentage of the annual energy saved through the application of each one of the mentioned measures was estimated. The results proved that installing a heat pump and internal insulation would maximise energy savings. Coupling the energy demand of the settlement in correlation with a wind energy project in the wider area, and the available curtailment was explored. The results showed that if 300 houses decide on acquiring their electricity consumption from the local wind independent power producer, at a price of EUR 35/MWh, the possible profit from the market could reach EUR100,000 per year. Such a business-driven concept could be extrapolated and evolve into a holistic wind energy and historic environment symbiosis setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on Hillman's (1982) political support function model, we explain the shift from auctioned to grandfathered emission trading in the European Union (EU). The analysis focuses on the three main interest groups, namely industry, consumers and environmentalists, in the framework of a support function approach where the relative lobby effort is determined by the relative gain the lobby groups experience from the proposed policy. Our general model suggests that even though the three main interest groups clearly support the switch from auctioning to grandfathering, this does not necessarily imply that there will be more support for achieving the Kyoto target level. An additional effect emerges when choosing grandfathering compared to auctioning since grandfathering means that the industry will be less willing to reduce emissions due to rent seeking motives that encourage lobbying for more permits and capturing additional rents. When rent seeking motives are sufficiently strong, they will jeopardize the overall achievement of the Kyoto target level in the EU. However, this effect will be eliminated if EU's recent plan to auction most of the permits from 2013 onwards succeeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the adaptation of flexible mechanisms to fulfill the obligations of the Kyoto Protocol in Europe. Use of options to absorb carbon dioxide emissions by proper land-use-change; Exploitation of greenhouse gas reduction potential outside the energy sector; Implementation of proposals in the area of energy and transport policy.

Focuses on the development of methane hydrate reserves to reduce polluting emissions in Europe. Application of catalyst with fuel cells; Mechanisms of chemical reaction converting methane to hydrogen; Classification of low emission vehicle based on pollutant emissions.

This study seeks, within the extended framework of the so-called environmental Kuznets curve (EKC), to analyse the nonlinear effect of economic growth and energy consumption on environmental pollution (measured by CO2 emissions) in 30 countries, over the period 2000 – 2018. The panel smooth transition regression (PSTR) model is used to allow such a relationship between variables in different economic regimes to be determined. According to the analysis results, this study strengthens the idea that the relationship can be described as a shaped business cycle, in which economic growth first increases environmental degradation, and then, after a certain growth (income) level has been reached, reduces it. This business cycle relationship suggests that environmental improvements will eventually occur as economies grow. Another implication of these results is the importance of using energy in a greener way to combat climate change and to sustain economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, the need to address the issues arising from the uncontrolled growth of photovoltaic installations, such as intermittence and unpredictability of the generation that cause loss of balance in the grid, becomes unavoidable. Promising solutions for minimizing grid injection are the combination of photovoltaic generation with electricity energy storage and load management, the latter commonly known as Demand Side Management. These strategies together with incentives for self-consumption or energy independence from the network will allow facilitating the integration of the always-increasing generation of renewable energy. In Europe, the usage of residential energy grid-interactive energy storage systems for buffering of surplus photovoltaic generation is becoming a field of growing interest and market activity, as a consequence of the less attractive photovoltaic feed-in-tariffs in the near future and incentives to promote self-consumption. This study aims to evaluate the energy exchange with the grid and the rate of self-consumption of combined photovoltaic–electricity energy storage systems dedicated to residential and small commercial prosumers. More specifically, several combinations of sizes of photovoltaic plant, annual household consumptions and electricity energy storage capacity were evaluated. This analysis aims to identify which arrangement among photovoltaic power, electricity consumption and battery capacity allows reaching the highest ratio of self-sufficiency and consequently minimizing the energy exchanged with the grid. Moreover, the financial analysis of the photovoltaic–electricity energy storage system has been performed for verifying the economic viability of the photovoltaic–electricity energy storage systems under the Italian current market and economic circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the impact of the design of the UNECE Conventionon Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) on the control oftransboundary air pollution in Europe. The history of CLTRAP is reviewed briefly: its origin as part of the East-West detente process of the 1970's has had considerable influence on its design. Germany's shift from environmental laggard to environmental leader in 1982 had a crucial impact on the effectiveness of the regime. Although transboundary air pollution in Europe has been reduced considerably, it is considered that the CLTRAP regime was only moderately effective in promoting this: much of it would have happened anyway. It has, however, been very effective in raising awareness of air pollution issues and providing a negotiating forum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When it comes to the construction of an index, one of the main problems is determining the weights that each variable carries. In this article, through models based on the Structural Equation Modelling methodology, an index for the measurement of the evolution of renewable energies is developed, and applied for a group of countries in the European Union. The results show that, in Europe, there are two groups clearly differentiated in terms of their level of development in renewable energy. In the first group, Germany, Spain, France, and Italy stand out while the second group is led by the United Kingdom, and includes countries like Portugal, Finland, and Greece. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information related to the petroleum and energy industries in Europe for 2012. It cites the tension between Shiites and Sunni Muslims in the Middles East as the major reason of upward movement in the petroleum cost. It adds that percentage change in energy cost for the period is expected to be at +2.4% in the fourth quarter. Moreover, it cites the need for Great Britain to streamline its environmental and climate policies.

The article offers information regarding climate change skepticism in Europe. It says that Russian scientists oppose the anthropogenic global warming (AGW) hypothesis very openly. It mentions the book "Blue Planet in Green Shackles," by late Czech Republic President Václav Havel, which warns against the loss of personal freedom due to intrusive climate policies. Moreover, the belief in man-made global warming remains strong in Germany.

The article offers the author's insights regarding the emission trading scheme (ETS) imposed by European Union (EU) to airlines using the air traffic of Europe as part of its climate policy. The author argues that the ETS on airline only seeks to control more the airline industry and collect more tax revenues. He states that the policy raises questions of the implementation such as if the global carbon dioxide (CO2) increase influence global climate and CO2 from airlines.

At around 2040-2050 we will be in a new major Solar Minimum. It is to be expected that we will then have a new "Little Ice Age" over the Arctic and NW Europe. The past Solar Minima were linked to a general speeding-up of the Earth's rate of rotation. This affected the surface currents and southward penetration of Arctic water in the North Atlantic causing "Little Ice Ages" over northwestern Europe and the Arctic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the vulnerability and resilience in the energy system of Europe. It examines the external and internal dynamics, as well as the vulnerability of the energy system. It notes that resilience in the energy system is narrowly defined in terms of either reliability or durability. It points out that reducing the vulnerability of the European Union Energy requires policy interventions that steer the direction of development towards embedding resilience. Further, it explores the resilience and adaptive capacity for energy systems.

The article discusses the issues on the need for an energy regulator by the European Commission (EC) in Europe. The energy regulator advocates the creation of a pan-European energy regulator to ensure its competence over cross-border energy issues and responsibility for evolving common standards and a common tariff policy. However, the Member States opposed to the idea and claimed that it would add to the unnecessary euro-bureaucracy. Among the factors in favor of the energy regulator are the strengthening of energy firms with the political elite in many of the EC member states, and the harmonizing effect would contribute to eliminate the existence of different interpretations of provisions and permit conditions in various parts of European Union.

In 1997, the European Union adopted the ambitious target of doubling the share of renewables in total primary energy consumption by 2010. However, by 2003 the EU was still recording low achievement levels, due largely to variation in the generosity and stability of member-state policies to support the diffusion of renewable energy. This article surveys national variation in the diffusion of renewable energy, linking this variation to the degree of ambition in governmental policies. After discussing what drives national policies, we conclude that policy ambitiousness reflects the degree to which salient national energy-related problems converge around renewable energy diffusion as a joint solution. Countries with ambitious renewable energy policies are found to have many unsolved national energy-related problems and an abundant primary renewable energy resource base that could be developed for solving these problems. Countries with less ambitious policies, on the other hand, have fewer salient national energy-related problems or a less abundant renewable energy resource base. Among energy-related problems, the lack of national energy security in combination with policy ambitions to assist new industrial activities emerges as a particularly forceful policy driver. A side-effect of the convergence of many national problems around renewable energy diffusion as solution is that strong advocacy coalitions can more readily be forged to lobby for generous and stable governmental renewable energy policies. Local-level factors will, however, condition the effect of central government policies. Countries that have ensured co-decision power for local communities and benefit-sharing rights in renewable energy development are more likely to sec their ambitious national policies result in diffusion, in contrast to countries with policies that ignore demands at the local level. The UK and Spain, representing low- and high-diffusion countries, respectively, are here discussed as major cases, supported by evidence from other EU member countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the extent to which and in what ways environmental policy instruments may affect patterns of environmental friendly technological change in the energy sector. Our argument is based on the assumption, however, that technological change is also affected by the political context in which the instruments are applied and by the nature of the problem itself. Comparative empirical research involving different European countries, sectors and policy fields were examined, including climate change, air pollution and wind power. The relationship between environmental policy instruments and technological change is extremely complex, not least due to the impact of other factors that may be more decisive than environmental ones. Against this backdrop, it was concluded that: 1) a portfolio of policy instruments works to the extent that different types of policy instruments affect the different drivers and stages behind technological change needed to solve specific problems. The need for a portfolio of policy instruments depends on the technological challenge being faced; 2) voluntary approaches facilitated constructive corporate strategies, but mandatory approaches tended to be more effective in stimulating short term major technological change; 3) voluntary approaches work well in the short term when the problem to be solved is characterized by lack of information and coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the implementation of stronger air pollution policies in Europe. Increase in robustness and institutional coherence in the policies; Need to reduce sulphur dioxide and ammonia emissions; Assessment of a country's past level of compliance.

Focuses on the development of Past Global Changes project to coordinate research aimed at quantifying past climate change in Europe. Impact of climate on natural and human ecosystems; Basis in developing and testing climate models; Global patterns and processes of climate change.

Discusses issues related to nature and environmental sciences compiled as of January 2001. Expansion of gas-fired power generations in Great Britain; Oil price crisis in Europe; Energy policy debates.

Focuses on the failure of the so-called green taxation scheme to solve environmental problems in Europe. Highly differentiated nature of carbon dioxide taxation; Favor given to industries by emission taxation programs.