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There have been fruitful publications on thermal comfort of urban residential buildings in China. However, there is a lack of reviews on this topic to perform a comprehensive analysis and find opportunities to meet occupants' thermal comfort needs while improving building energy efficiencies. This paper addresses this issue by presenting a systematic review on the advancements in research on thermal comfort in urban residential buildings in China. Firstly, two common thermal comfort research approaches, i.e., field studies and laboratory studies, are discussed. Secondly, eleven main thermal comfort evaluation indicators are summarized. Finally, this paper analyzes the thermal comfort survey data from different researchers, discusses the impacts of adaptive behaviors on human thermal comfort, and provides recommendations for future research on urban residential thermal comfort. It was found that people have higher and higher requirements for their indoor thermal environment as time goes by, especially in the winter; the thermoneutral temperature is higher in warmer climate regions in the summer but lower in the winter than in colder climate regions; the thermoneutral temperature tends to increase with the indoor air temperature due to an adaptation to the indoor thermal environment. The outcomes of this paper provide valuable information on thermal comfort behaviors of urban residents in different climate zones in China, which can serve as a resource for the academic community conducting future research on thermal comfort and assist policymakers in enhancing building energy efficiencies without compromising the occupants' comfort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unconventional tight oil and gas resources in the Xinzhao East belt of the Hangjinqi Prospect area in the Ordos Basin of China are abundant. However, the reservoir's internal storage space is complex, and the microscopic pore throat structural features are not well recognized, which has led to some trouble in the deployment of oil and gas exploration. To reveal the microscopic characteristics of the dense sandstone gas layer in the first member of the Lower Stone Box Formation of the D-well Zone in the Xinzhao East belt of the Hangjinqi Prospect area, a three-dimensional space digital core was built, and the stored set spatial data were extracted, based on rock sheet and coring data and X-CT scanning technology. Quartz grain size was segmented and analyzed based on an adaptive approach. The microscopic characteristics of the gas layer in the studied section and the factors influencing its development were studied, combining the use of a field emission scanning electron microscope, helium porosimeter, and gas permeability meter. We found that in the studied section, the porosity is relatively high, the pore throat size is large, and the pore permeability correlation is good. The reservoir space, which consists of intergranular pores, intragranular pores, and microcracks at the grain edges in the study area, is characterized by a complex distribution pattern. Within the gas layer, isolated pores are connected by microcracks to form a network of reservoir spaces, which increases the pore throat size, enhances the connectivity of the pore throat, and makes the microscopic characteristics of the reservoir space better. The first member of the Lower Stone Box Formation could be an advantageous reservoir. Hole–throat connectivity is poor because of the gas layer having underdeveloped primary pores, the blockage of pores by unstable minerals (kaolinite, etc.), and poorly connected pore throats based on insoluble mud cementation. The high content of quartz brittle minerals and the development of natural microcracks within the gas formation are favorable conditions for fracking development. The quartz grain size within the gas layer is positively correlated with the pore throat size, which suggests that the quartz grain size somewhat influences the microscopic characteristics of the reservoir space. This comprehensive study shows that the methodology of the study is more advantageous than traditional methods in the fine and three-dimensional spatial characterization of the microstructure of dense sandstone reservoirs. The research results of this paper have certain guiding significance for further reservoir evaluation and advantageous reservoir prediction in the Hangjinqi Prospect area in the Ordos Basin. We also provide the basis for the subsequent efficient development of the gas reservoir. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New-energy vehicles (NEV), particularly electric vehicles, are globally popular with political and financial support from governments, which aim at reducing energy consumption and environmental pollution in the transportation sector. This paper designs a matrix model which identifies the factors influencing the decision-making process on purchasing NEVs, and applies the model on a Chinese case to investigate the impact of influencing factors on Chinese consumers' purchase behavior to NEVs. The influencing factors are divided into five groups: economic, political, social, technological and environmental. Through a detailed questionnaire survey of 526 consumers in China, this paper conducts a correlation and difference analysis between these consumers' status and the influencing factors on the purchase decision-making of NEVs through SPSS software. The results indicate that economic, technological and political factors have a strong influence on purchase behavior, while social and environmental factors have a weaker influence. Additional principal component analysis on influencing factors' preference reveals that consumers' preferences have two tendencies: practicability or appearance, with the former is attracting far more attention. Rather than practicability or appearance, consumers care more about economic and political factors. According to these results, this paper suggests several policy implications on enhancing the consumers' willingness to purchase NEVs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In light of the carbon neutrality goals set post-Paris Climate Conference (COP21), this study delves into the relationship between green technology innovations, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions in China, spanning the period of 1990 to 2021. The objective of this paper is to creatively present the idea of a low-carbon digital economy from the viewpoint of digital technology. Utilizing the Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence, and Technology (STIRPAT) model, we scrutinize this relationship, employing unit-root testing to verify the integrative attributes of the variables, inclusive of structural break data. Further analysis using the bootstrap Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bound testing method corroborates the relationship between these key variables. The study reveals unidirectional co-integration over time among green technology innovations, renewable and non-renewable energy, per capita income, population, and CO2 emissions as per the Granger causality test. Interestingly, our findings suggest that while green technology innovation, per capita income, and renewable energy contribute to the reduction of CO2 emissions, non-renewable energy consumption and population growth exacerbate them. These insights offer valuable guidance for policymakers in formulating comprehensive strategies to enhance environmental quality through the promotion of renewable energy and green technology innovations, with a specific emphasis on the Chinese context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The investment in hydrogen-refueling stations (HRS) is key to the development of a hydrogen economy. This paper focuses on the decision-making for potential investors faced with the thought-provoking question of when the optimal timing to invest in HRS is. To fill the gap that exists due to the fact that few studies explain why HRS investment timing is critical, we expound that earlier investment in HRS could induce the first mover advantages of the technology diffusion theory. Additionally, differently from the previous research that only considered that HRS investment is just made by one individual firm, we innovatively examine the HRS co-investment made by two different firms. Accordingly, we compare these two optional investment modes and determine which is better considering either independent investment or co-operative investment. We then explore how the optimal HRS investment timing could be figured out under conditions of uncertainty with the real options approach. Given the Chinese HRS case under the condition of demand uncertainty, the hydrogen demand required for triggering investment is viewed as the proxy for investment timing. Based on analytical and numerical results, we conclude that one-firm independent investment is better than two-firm cooperative investment to develop HRS, not only in terms of the earlier investment timing but also in terms of the attribute for dealing with the uncertainty. Finally, we offer recommendations including stabilizing the hydrogen demand for decreasing uncertainty, and accelerating firms' innovation from both technological and strategic perspectives in order to ensure firms can make HRS investments on their own. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of carbon neutrality does have economic costs; however, few studies have measured the cost and the economic neutral opportunities. This paper uses a dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to simulate China's carbon neutrality path from 2020 to 2060 and analyzes its economic impact. This paper innovatively adjusts the CGE modeling technology and simulates the boundary of the Porter hypothesis on the premise of economic neutrality. The results show that the carbon neutrality target may reduce the annual GDP growth rate by about 0.8% in 2020–2060. To make the carbon pricing method under the carbon neutrality framework meet the strong version of the Porter hypothesis (or economic neutrality), China must increase its annual total factor productivity by 0.56–0.57% in 2020–2060; this is hard to achieve. In addition, the study finds that China's 2030 carbon target has little impact on the economy, but the achievement of the 2060 carbon neutrality target will have a significant effect. Therefore, the paper believes that the key to carbon neutrality lies in the coexistence of technological innovation and carbon pricing to ensure that we can cope with global warming with the lowest cost and resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the extent to which electricity shortage influences technical efficiency using data of 805 listed manufacturing companies in China from 2009 to 2020 collected from the CSMAR database. To achieve the objectives of this paper, first, a stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) is used to estimate the technical efficiency (TE) score of manufacturing companies. Subsequently, the TE score is used to evaluate the electricity shortage index and other factors that are postulated to affect enterprise productivity. Two estimation methods have been adopted including ordinary least squares (OLS), which is less robust to endogeneity and instrumental variable (IV) estimation, which turns out to be more robust to endogeneity in the data. The empirical results show that, under OLS estimation, electricity shortage has a significantly negative impact on the technical efficiency of the listed manufacturing companies. However, when IV regression is implemented to address endogeneity issues in the data, electricity shortages tend to have a significantly positive impact on the technical efficiency, underscoring the importance of capturing endogeneity in the data. Extending the baseline results, this study also finds that, while the size of an enterprise may have no bearing, state-owned companies are more likely to be negatively affected by electricity shortages compared to privately owned companies. These results have significant implications for industrial policy design in China in particular, and developing countries in general. Most importantly, the results of this study underscore the importance of policies and measures to promote a shift in the ownership structure towards the private sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China and Russia have different interests in the Arctic but are forced to look for possible ways of cooperation in energy projects in the current external conditions. This changes the priorities of both countries and, accordingly, transforms the risks. Objectives of the research: to build an algorithm for identifying anthropogenic environmental risks in the context of two major players economic activities in the Arctic region: the Russian Federation and China. In the paper, we formulated an algorithm of environmental risk identification. We identified environmental hazards from the main parameter—the type of economic activity for the extraction of energy resources, premises, and factors for the occurrence of environmental hazards and compiled criteria for risk selection. Methods used: complex analysis (mixed method research): empirical and comparative methods, methods of expert assessments, the method of inductive statistics (inferential statistics) to compare the perception of risk at the level of different groups. Results: the algorithm has been formed for determining risks in the changed external conditions. Major anthropogenic environmental risks are identified from the perspective of the main players in the Arctic—Russia and China, which can help to make the necessary decisions on time and partially prevent environmental degradation. This makes it possible to identify the risks associated with conducting economic activities for the extraction of energy resources in the Arctic region. Therefore, this study contributes to a more accurate identification of anthropogenic environmental risks in the Arctic region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, China has proposed the goal of peaking carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2060, which will significantly alter its existing coal-based energy mix. Since coal is China's primary source of energy and the largest contributor to carbon emissions, coal reduction is an important measure toward carbon neutrality. In order to guarantee the stable development of economy and society in the process of coal reduction, the path and cost of coal reduction need to be studied in depth. Based on coal use in China, this paper examines and measures the stages and costs of coal reduction. It also gives a definition for coal reduction costs for the first time, including economic cost, environment and ecology cost, and health cost, as well as proposes a framework for analyzing the "full cost, full process, and full scenario". We measure the cost in combination with the KAYA formula, and take into account the time value of the cost. Based on the above measurement framework, we calculate the unit coal reduction cost and estimate the coal reduction cost between CNY 454.38 and 827.1 billion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global warming is a critical crisis threatening human survival and development. International organizations and countries worldwide are introducing policies and practices to achieve carbon neutrality. In China, numerous carbon neutrality policies have been established; however, a systematic understanding of the underlying policy logic is lacking. Using the institutional analysis and development (IAD) framework, this paper analyzes selected carbon neutrality policies in China. We conducted a bibliometric visualization analysis of the texts of 20 policies and matched their logic to the elements of the IAD framework. We established 90 keywords with occurrences of no less than 10 times in China's carbon neutrality policies. The network visualization analysis identified six clusters. We discuss implementation challenges of China's carbon neutrality policies, address the policy implementation, and finally outline impacts on China's carbon neutrality governance. This study responds to the global concern over China's carbon neutrality commitments by clarifying the institutional logic of China's policies and actions. This study could provide a reference for countries worldwide that are designing and introducing carbon neutrality policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of average wages on electricity consumption among urban residents in China has generated many fascinating debates for scholarly research, but only a few studies have considered the spatial spillover effect of average wages on residential electricity consumption. With the use of city-level panel data from 278 Chinese cities spanning 2005 to 2016, this preliminary study explores the impacts of the average wage on residential electricity consumption. Specifically, based on the spatial Durbin model with fixed effects, three different spatial weight matrices (the economic distance, the inverse distance, and the four nearest neighbours) are utilised to check the robustness of the results under different standards. The results show that the residential electricity consumption of each city increased during the observation period, presenting obvious spatial correlations. Secondly, the average wage of residents had a positive spatial spillover effect, which promoted the residential electricity consumption of both local and surrounding cities. Thirdly, the population density, electricity intensity, educational level of urban residents, and per capita household liquefied petroleum gas consumption in urban areas are key factors influencing residential electricity consumption. Therefore, improving the educational level of urban residents and reducing the electricity intensity can help reduce electricity consumption by residents in China. This paper also presents policy recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high-quality methane emission estimation in China's oil and gas sector is the basis of an effective mitigation strategy. Currently, the published emission data and studies of China's oil and gas sector only provide estimations of total emissions, which is not enough for good analysis of the trend and impact factors for the instruction of emission mitigation activities. The main problem is that published data for oil and gas infrastructure in China is incomplete, which makes it difficult to apply the conventional greenhouse gas inventory compiling method and the uncertainty estimation strategy. Therefore, this paper aims to develop a method to estimate infrastructure data using all available data, including partial data for the infrastructure, national production and consumption of oil and gas, and production and production capacity data of oil and gas enterprises, and then uses a Monte Carlo-based method to generate a source-based inventory and uncertainty analysis of methane emission for China's oil and gas industry from 1995 to 2018. We found that methane emission increased from 208.3 kt in 1995 to 1428.8 kt in 2018. Methane emission in 2018 has an uncertainty of about ±3%. Compared to former studies, our research found that the production stage of natural gas is the main contributor, which is further driven by the growth of natural gas production. The mitigation potential introduced by technology development on methane emission remains large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the ten years since committing to clean energy transition, China has formulated a large number of policies and programs to achieve some very ambitious targets. This paper argues that the dearth of empirical studies concerning the implementation of these new policies and programs has created a knowledge gap between official policy documents, which are vague and lacking in specifics, and official policy outcomes, which are unreliable. In particular, the merits and limitations of flexible implementation with regard to desirable outcomes need to be debated and clarified. This paper calls for more empirical investigation in four areas as a starting point: (1) the nature and extent of flexibility in the implementation; (2) implementation strategies and their impacts; (3) factors that shape the behavior of local officials responsible for implementation; and (4) the relationship between the central-local relation and policy implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we used the life-cycle analysis (LCA) method to evaluate the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of natural gas (NG) distributed generation (DG) projects in China. We took the China Resources Snow Breweries (CRSB) NG DG project in Sichuan province of China as a base scenario and compared its life cycle energy consumption and GHG emissions performance against five further scenarios. We found the CRSB DG project (all energy input is NG) can reduce GHG emissions by 22%, but increase energy consumption by 12% relative to the scenario, using coal combined with grid electricity as an energy input. The LCA also indicated that the CRSB project can save 24% of energy and reduce GHG emissions by 48% relative to the all-coal scenario. The studied NG-based DG project presents major GHG emissions reduction advantages over the traditional centralized energy system. Moreover, this reduction of energy consumption and GHG emissions can be expanded if the extra electricity from the DG project can be supplied to the public grid. The action of combining renewable energy into the NG DG system can also strengthen the dual merit of energy conservation and GHG emissions reduction. The marginal CO2 abatement cost of the studied project is about 51 USD/ton CO2 equivalent, which is relatively low. Policymakers are recommended to support NG DG technology development and application in China and globally to boost NG utilization and control GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China building energy consumption (BEC) has been gradually derived and also sparked attention. However, something worth discussing is estimating the BEC based on the definition of life cycle or building operation. In addition, there exists discrepancy in the previous studies and the real status of BEC has not been known well. In order to settle the disputes over the calculation of BEC, this paper establishes an appropriate accounting method of building energy to present the BEC situation in China and lays the foundation for policymakers to develop appropriate energy saving policies. Meanwhile, this study attempts to clarify the BEC to help policymakers assess the effect of environmental policies. Using the method in this document, we find that the energy consumption of buildings just accounts for 15%–16% of the final total energy consumption in China; by contrast, the previous studies usually have double accounting through a top-down approach if central heat supply of buildings was taken into additional consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural gas has an increasing role in Chinese energy transformation. We present a system dynamics model of the natural gas industry in China. A new system dynamics model for natural gas companies based on reserve exploration and well construction as well as investment dynamics is proposed. The contribution of the paper is to analyze the influence of technology, investment and policy factors on the natural gas industry. We found that the dynamics of the main variables, including gas policy, cost of investment, accounting depreciation and exploitation technology, are sensitive to the sustainable development of resources. The simulations and results presented here will be helpful for government to reform policies, and for upstream companies to make decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electricity consumption is often the hotspot of life cycle assessment (LCA) of products, industrial activities, or services. The objective of this paper is to provide a consistent, scientific, region-specific electricity-supply-based inventory of electricity generation technology for national and regional power grids. Marginal electricity generation technology is pivotal in assessing impacts related to additional consumption of electricity. China covers a large geographical area with regional supply grids; these are arguably equally or less integrated. Meanwhile, it is also a country with internal imbalances in regional energy supply and demand. Therefore, we suggest an approach to achieve a geographical subdivision of the Chinese electricity grid, corresponding to the interprovincial regional power grids, namely the North, the Northeast, the East, the Central, the Northwest, and the Southwest China Grids, and the China Southern Power Grid. The approach combines information from the Chinese national plans on for capacity changes in both production and distribution grids, and knowledge of resource availability. The results show that nationally, marginal technology is coal-fired electricity generation, which is the same scenario in the North and Northwest China Grid. In the Northeast, East, and Central China Grid, nuclear power gradually replaces coal-fired electricity and becomes the marginal technology. In the Southwest China Grid and the China Southern Power Grid, the marginal electricity is hydropower towards 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geothermal energy is one of the cleanest sources of energy which is gaining importance as an alternative to hydrocarbons. Geothermal energy reserves in China are enormous and it has a huge potential for exploitation and utilization. However, the development of the geothermal industry in China lags far behind other renewable energy sources because of the lack of fiscal and taxation policy support. In this paper, we adopt the system dynamics method and use the causal loop diagram to explore the development mechanism of fiscal and taxation policies in the geothermal industry. The effect of the fiscal and taxation policy on the development of the geothermal industry is analyzed. In order to promote sustainable development of the geothermal industry in China, the government should pay more attention to subsidies for the geothermal industry in the life-cycle stage of the geothermal industry. Furthermore, a plan is necessary to provide a reasonable system of fiscal and taxation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The residential sector has become the second largest energy consumer in China. Urban residential energy consumption (URE) in China is growing rapidly in the process of urbanization. This paper aims to reveal the spatiotemporal dynamic evolution and influencing mechanism of URE in China. The spatiotemporal heterogeneity of URE during 2007–2018 is explored through Kernel density estimation and inequality measures (i.e., Gini coefficient, Theil index, and mean logarithmic deviation). Then, with several advantages over traditional index decomposition analysis approaches, the Generalized Divisia Index Method (GDIM) decomposition is employed to investigate the impacts of eight driving factors on URE. Furthermore, the national and provincial decoupling relationships between URE and residential income increase are studied. It is found that different provinces' URE present a significant agglomeration effect; the interprovincial inequality in URE increases and then decreases during the study period. The GDIM decomposition results indicate the income effect is the main positive factor driving URE. Besides, urban population, residential area, per capita energy use, and per unit area energy consumption positively influence URE. By contrast, per capita income, energy intensity, and residential density have negative effects on URE. There is evidence that only three decoupling states, i.e., weak decoupling, strong decoupling, and expansive negative decoupling, appear in China during 2007–2018. Specifically, weak decoupling is the dominant state among different regions. Finally, some suggestions are given to speed up the construction of energy-saving cities and promote the decoupling process of residential energy consumption in China. This paper fills some research gaps in urban residential energy research and is important for China's policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we develop an agent-based model to explore a feasible way of simultaneously providing sufficient food and bioenergy feedstocks in China. Concerns over the competition for agricultural land resources between food and bioenergy supply hinder the further development of bioenergy, especially in China, the country that needs tofeed the world's largest population. Prior research has suggested the introduction of energy crops and reviewed the resulting agricultural land use change in China. However, there is a lack of quantitative studies which estimate the value, contribution, and impact of bioenergy for specific conditions at the county level and provide adequate information to guide local practices. Tofill this gap, we choose the Jiangsu Province in China as a case study, build up a spatial-agent dynamic model of agricultural land use, and perform a sensitivity analysis for important parameters. The simulation results show that straw from conventional crops generally dominates Jiangsu's biomass supply with a contribution above 85%. The sensitivity analyses reveal severe consequences of bioenergy targets for local land use. For Jiangsu Province, reclaimed mudflats, an alternative to arable lands for energy crop plantation, help to secure the local biomass supply and to alleviate the land use conflict between food and biomass production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In China, the power sector is currently the largest carbon emitter and the transportation sector is the fastest-growing carbon emitter. This paper proposes a model of solar-powered charging stations for electric vehicles to mitigate problems encountered in China's renewable energy utilization processes and to cope with the increasing power demand by electric vehicles for the near future. This study applies the proposed model to Shenzhen City to verify its technical and economic feasibility. Modeling results showed that the total net present value of a photovoltaic power charging station that meets the daily electricity demand of 4500 kWh is $3,579,236 and that the cost of energy of the combined energy system is $0.098/kWh. In addition, the photovoltaic powered electric vehicle model has pollutant reduction potentials of 99.8%, 99.7% and 100% for carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, respectively, compared with a traditional gasoline-fueled car. Sensitivity analysis results indicated that interest rate has a relatively strong influence on COE (Cost of Energy). An increase in the interest rate from 0% to 6% increases COE from $0.027/kWh to $0.097/kWh. This analysis also suggests that carbon pricing promotes renewable energy only when the price of carbon is above $20/t. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Densified Biomass Solid Fuel (DBSF) is a typical solid form of biomass, using agricultural and forestry residues as raw materials. DBSF utilization is considered to be an alternative to fossil energy, like coal in China, associated with a reduction of environmental pollution. China has abundant biomass resources and is suitable to develop DBSF. Until now, a number of policies aimed at fostering DBSF industry have been proliferated by policy makers in China. However, considering the seasonality and instability of biomass resources, these inefficiencies could trigger future scarcities of biomass feedstocks, baffling the resilience of biomass supply chains. Therefore, this review paper focuses on DBSF policies and strategies in China, based on the supply chain framework. We analyzed the current developing situation of DBSF industry in China and developed a framework for policy instruments based on the supply chain steps, which can be used to identify and assess the deficiencies of current DBSF industry policies, and we proposed some suggestions. These findings may inform policy development and identify synergies at different steps in the supply chain to enhance the development of DBSF industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of the smart grid in China, new opportunities for responsive industrial loads to participate in the provision of ancillary services (AS) will become accessible. This paper summarizes AS in China and analyzes the necessary characteristics and advantages of industrial users to provide AS according to their response mechanism. Cement manufacturing and aluminum smelter processes are selected as two representatives of responsive industrial loads. An agent-based model that includes generation, industrial user, and grid agents is proposed. Using two case studies, we analyze the integrated power management of conventional units and industrial loads in day-ahead and real-time AS scheduling based on real device parameters, price mechanisms and production data. The simulation results indicate that the participation of responsive industrial loads in the provision of AS, in China, can improve the coal consumption rate and the system-wide load factor as well as reduce the total system cost for the provision of AS significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the international community's analysis of the present CO2 emissions situation, a Log Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) decomposition model is proposed in this paper, aiming to reflect the decomposition of carbon productivity. The model is designed by analyzing the factors that affect carbon productivity. China's contribution to carbon productivity is analyzed from the dimensions of influencing factors, regional structure and industrial structure. It comes to the conclusions that: (a) economic output, the provincial carbon productivity and energy structure are the most influential factors, which are consistent with China's current actual policy; (b) the distribution patterns of economic output, carbon productivity and energy structure in different regions have nothing to do with the Chinese traditional sense of the regional economic development patterns; (c) considering the regional protectionism, regional actual situation need to be considered at the same time; (d) in the study of the industrial structure, the contribution value of industry is the most prominent factor for China's carbon productivity, while the industrial restructuring has not been done well enough. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2009, the implementation of feed-in tariff (FIT) and attractive public subsidies for onshore wind farms aroused great investment enthusiasm and spurred remarkable development of wind power in China. Meanwhile, rapid learning-by-doing has significantly cut down the cost of wind turbines and the capital cost of wind farms as well. Therefore, it is the right time to examine the appropriateness of the existing FIT policy for wind power in China. In this paper, we employ the analytical framework for levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) to model the generation cost of wind power. Results show that the existing FIT policy is attractive to investors, but serious curtailment and turbine quality issues could make wind power unprofitable. Meanwhile, rapid substantial decreases in the cost of wind power have made it competitive to coal power in 2013, implying that it is possible and necessary to reform the FIT policy for new wind farms. In the future, energy policies for onshore wind power in China could be concentrated on reducing the integration cost, so as to reduce the overall system cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, there are considerable discrepancies between China's central government and some local governments in attitudes towards coal to liquids (CTL) technology. Energy return on investment (EROI) analysis of CTL could provide new insights that may help solve this dilemma. Unfortunately, there has been little research on this topic; this paper therefore analyses the EROI of China's Shenhua Group Direct Coal Liquefaction (DCL) project, currently the only DCL commercial project in the world. The inclusion or omission of internal energy and by-products is controversial. The results show that the EROIstnd without by-product and with internal energy is 0.68-0.81; the EROIstnd (the standard EROI) without by-product and without internal energy is 3.70-5.53; the EROIstnd with by-product and with internal energy is 0.76-0.90; the EROIstnd with by-product and without internal energy is 4.13-6.14. Furthermore, it is necessary to consider carbon capture and storage (CCS) as a means to control the CO2 emissions. Considering the added energy inputs of CCS at the plant level, the EROIs decrease to 0.65-0.77, 2.87-3.97, 0.72-0.85, and 3.20-4.40, respectively. The extremely low, even negative, net energy, which may be due to high investments in infrastructure and low conversion efficiency, suggests CTL is not a good choice to replace conventional energy sources, and thus, Chinese government should be prudent when developing it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a global move toward being "carbon neutral". Reducing the use of coal to generate power has become an inevitable choice for many countries when transforming their energy structures. Many countries have proposed phasing out coal. China is a major energy producing and consuming country and intends to reach a carbon peak by 2030 and become carbon neutral by 2060. China has repeatedly emphasized coal reduction, but has not explicitly proposed phasing out coal, due to the influence of local governments, coal-related enterprises, and the public. This paper explores whether China could declare a "coal phase-out", and the possible reasons for doing so, by constructing an evolutionary game model with two correlations. MATLAB was used to simulate the model results to determine the effectiveness of the fractal results of the model, and the entropy method was used to calculate the development level of "coal phase-out" related indicators in China and Germany. The results show that: (1) The government can phase out coal only when coal-related enterprises and the public can benefit from reducing coal production and consumption. In addition, these benefits are needed to ensure stable economic and social development without affecting people's daily lives; (2) The development level of relevant indicators of "coal retreat" in China is lower than that in Germany. Based on these results, it is concluded that it is difficult for China to announce a "coal phase-out" at present. Faced with this reality, China should improve the efficiency of coal use, install carbon capture and storage facilities, vigorously develop renewable energy and reduce the share of coal in the energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inter-provincial power transmission in China solved the problem of electricity production and consumption spatial mismatch, which also facilitated Chinese green energy transition and sustainable development. Aiming to understand the spatial patterns and main driving factors, this paper accounted the aggregate carbon intensity per electricity produced by each province, built the inter-provincial Out–Destination matrixes of carbon emission embodied in power transmission among 27 provincial areas of 2006 and 2019, and quantitatively analyzed the change in spatial patterns of carbon flow and carbon intensity difference between power inward and outward provinces. We found that the inter-provincial power transmission has led to the reduction in the national average carbon intensity per electricity produced from 0.855 kg/kWh in 2006 to 0.628 kg/kWh in 2019 and the green energy transition of all provinces. The spatial morphology characteristics of carbon flow show the 'three corridors of West-East Power Transmission (WEPT)' pattern, in which power is transmitted from some main thermal power-dominated provinces in central and north-west China to the eastern coastal provinces. Further, it resulted in the carbon leakage from electricity consumption of the coastal provinces and carbon overload of the hinterland provinces. Despite natural resource endowment, the location of the provinces in the national power grid, the national low-carbon energy transition strategy, as well as advances in long-distance ultra-high-voltage power transmission technologies were the main factors to the formation and evolution of Chinese electricity green transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The trade-off between economic growth and ecological improvement has always become an important and difficult issue for many countries, especially for developing countries. Due to a long-term extensive economic growth pattern, the regional resource allocation deviates from the optimal, especially the existence of energy misallocation, which hinders the maximization of economic output. Therefore, considering the characteristics and heterogeneity of resource endowments in different regions and increasing renewable energy consumption, that is, promoting energy transition, is it capable of sustainable development under China's actual conditions? The exploration of the issue is a core step in the research of the impact of renewable energy on industrial green transformation. Based on the panel data of 30 regions in China from 2009 to 2016, this paper constructs a threshold model from the perspective of regional energy misallocation and empirically tests the nonlinear mechanism of renewable energy consumption to promote industrial green transformation. The results show that China's energy allocation efficiency is low, there is a certain misallocation phenomenon, and the improvement effect in recent years is not satisfactory. Further, the relationship between renewable energy consumption and industrial green transformation is not a simple linear relationship, but a double threshold effect due to regional energy misallocation. In areas with severe energy misallocation, renewable energy consumption does not have a significant boost to industrial green transformation. Finally, this paper proposes the policy enlightenment of promoting industrial green transformation from the aspects of performance evaluation, market reform, and factor flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing energy from renewable sources and modernizing the energy system are critical components of China's efforts to combat climate change. Policymakers and authorities have made significant attempts to bring them. However, one of the major impediments to China's energy revolution is financial limitations, which are inextricably linked to the country's economic growth. The present research paper intends to investigate the relationship between economic growth and sustainable financial development on the use of energy from renewable sources in both the short and long run in the context of China. To achieve this, the researchers have utilized the panel data consisting of 10 years from 2011 to 2020. When compared to cross-sectional and time-series data samples, the panel data model offers many benefits. For starters, the panel data includes information on the passage of time and the cross-sectional area. Another benefit of using panel-data models with a larger degree of freedom is that they provide more stable and reliable estimates across short periods across cross-sections. In the case of the short run, there is a positive relationship between economic and financial development and the use of energy from renewable sources in the context of all of China. While in the case of long-term effects, the results indicate the adverse impact of financial development on the use of energy from renewable sources in the western regions of China. These results were deduced using the causality test Granger proposed to determine the path of the causal relationship and the direction of the relationship between the variables. These results indicated that the relationship between economic and financial development in east China was unidirectional, and the nature of the underlying relationship was causal. Meanwhile, in east and west China, economic development in China as a whole has been unidirectionally increasing energy from renewable sources. Our empirical findings suggest many strategies for promoting the growth of energy from renewable sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smog pollution is a severe social and environmental concern for the space-heating regions in China due to fossil-intensive space heating. To reduce polluting emissions and improve social and environmental performance, local government agencies should choose adequate cleaner space-heating technologies based on diverse local conditions. This implies that all cleaner heating solutions should be considered, including low-emissions fossil fuel district heating and low-emissions fossil fuel decentralized heating as transitional technologies, as well as biomass and electricity-driven heat pumps as long-term solutions. However, stakeholders such as policy makers, equipment manufacturers, and house owners, often lack necessary information to assess the feasibility for installing adequate heating solutions at the local level. It is therefore necessary to establish a systematic method to evaluate each heating solution in various geolocations of China. This paper reviews the current heating situation in China and proposes a spatial system analysis method as a tool for heating-solution feasibility evaluation. By applying the spatial system analysis method, a qualitative investigation on the choice of heating solution in different regions of China is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the relationship between urbanization, economic growth, industrial transformation, technological change, public services, demographical change, urban and natural environmental changes, and carbon emissions using a dataset of 182 prefecture-level cities in China between 2001 and 2010. Specifically, this paper differs from previous studies in two aspects. First, the extant literature has focused on how economic processes accompanying rapid urbanization affect carbon emissions in urban areas but gives little attention to the other dimensions of urbanization, including social and environmental changes, which may have important effects on carbon emissions. We assessed the effects of 17 key processes accompanying urbanization in a full range of economic, social, and environmental dimensions on carbon dioxide emissions in urban areas. The results showed that social processes accompanied with rapid urbanization had distinct effects on carbon emissions, compared to economic and environmental processes. Specifically, improvement in public services, indicated by education and cultural developments, reduces the increase in carbon emissions during urbanization, while economic growth and urban construction reinforces the growth in carbon emissions. Second, we examined the impact of various urbanization processes on carbon dioxide emissions using a unique dataset of 182 prefecture-level cities that covers a wide span of regions in China. The results of our analyses on the city level have important implications for the formulation of comprehensive policies aimed at reducing carbon dioxide emission in urban areas, focusing on different urbanization processes in economic, social, and environmental phases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of natural gas (NG)- based fuels to the GHG emissions of electric vehicles (EVs) powered with NG-to-electricity in China. A life-cycle model is used to account for full fuel cycle and use-phase emissions, as well as vehicle cycle and battery manufacturing. The reduction of life-cycle GHG emissions of EVs charged by electricity generated from NG, without utilizing carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology can be 36%-47% when compared to gasoline vehicles. The large range change in emissions reduction potential is driven by the different generation technologies that could in the future be used to generate electricity in China. When CCS is employed in power plants, the GHG emission reductions increase to about 71%-73% compared to gasoline vehicles. It is found that compressed NG (CNG) and liquefied NG (LNG) fuels can save about 10% of carbon as compared to gasoline vehicles. However, gas-to-liquid (GTL) fuel made through the Fischer-Tropsch method will likely lead to a life-cycle GHG emissions increase, potentially 3%-15% higher than gasoline, but roughly equal to petroleum-based diesel. When CCS is utilized, the GTL fueled vehicles emit roughly equal GHG emissions to petroleum-based diesel fuel high-efficient hybrid electric vehicle from the life-cycle perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combined Cooling, Heating and Power (CCHP) systems have been widely used in different kinds of buildings to make better use of fuels because of their high overall efficiency. This paper presents a mathematical analysis of a CCHP system in comparison to a Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system. The operation strategies following electric load (FEL), thermal load (FTL) and a hybrid electric-thermal load (FHL) are proposed and investigated in this study. Criteria, namely primary energy saving (PES), exergy efficiency (ηexergy), and CO2 emission reduction (CER) are defined to evaluate the performances of CCHP systems for a hypothetical building located in Dalian (China). The results indicate that: (1) a new mathematical foundation is established to find whether the recovered thermal energy and the amount of electricity generated by the power generation unit (PGU) are enough to provide the energy required; (2) the CCHP system does not always perform better than a HVAC system from an instantaneous perspective, especially in FTL mode; (3) the CCHP system in FEL operation mode can be seen as a suitable energy system in Dalian from the annual performance perspective. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis is presented in order to show how the performances vary due to the changes of various technical variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid growth occurring in the urban regions of China, it is critical to address issues of sustainability through practices that engender holistic energy efficient solutions. In this paper, we present results from a collaborative design project carried out with planning officials from the city of Jinan (population 3.4 million), for the Luokou district, a 3.1 km2 (1.2 mi2) area to the north of the CBD that is expected to house 100,000-130,000 people by 2020. By integrating sustainable building design, land use, urban design, and transportation, our proposal identified opportunities for improving energy efficiency that might have been overlooked by considering buildings and transportation separately. Mixed land uses and walkable neighborhoods were proposed along with highly differentiated street designs, intended to carry different traffic loads and prioritize diverse travel modes. Street widths and building heights were adjusted to maximize the potential for passive solar heating and daylight use within buildings. The district's environmental performance, analyzed using building energy evaluation and traffic micro simulation models, showed that the design would reduce energy loads by over 25% compared to business as usual. While the proposal complied with national and local policies, and had far better energy performance than conventional designs, the proposal ultimately was not accepted by local officials because initial costs to the developers were higher than for conventional designs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of the smart grid has been gaining more and more attention worldwide since it was proposed by the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute in 2001. Recently, it has been propelled again by the promotion of low carbon economies in developing countries. To satisfy the exponential increase in electricity demand and alleviate environmental degradation caused by fossil fuel-based power generation, China has made great efforts in constructing a smart grid as a substitution of traditional energyintensive power grid. In the 12th Five-Year Plan in particular, it was stated that emphasis should be placed on the development of renewable energy and smart grids. The objective of this paper is to provide an insight into the current research on smart grids, and shed light on the development of smart grids in China, based on the analysis of which, the obstacles and barriers in the development process are identified. Finally, policy prospects on the construction of smart grids in China are proposed from the aspects of technology, administration and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Great attention has been paid to carbon bio-sequestration due to increasing concerns over global warming. Understanding the relationship between carbon bio-sequestration and its influencing factors is of great significance for formulating appropriate management measures for global warming mitigation. Since change in carbon bio-sequestration is a complex process, it is difficult to take into account all of its influencing factors, while the panel data model may provide an effective way to measure their subtle effects. In this paper, decomposition analysis is applied to further analyze these influencing factors. The results indicate that climatic, demographic and geographical variables play important roles in explaining the spatial heterogeneity of carbon bio-sequestration in China, which is consistent with previous researches. Meanwhile, the irrigation rate is found to be the most critical factor influencing carbon bio-sequestration changes, followed by climatic and economic factors. These results may provide decision makers in China with important scientific reference information for formulating regional carbon bio-sequestration management policies, which are of great significance to alleviating and adapting to global warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microalgal biofuel research in China has made noticeable progress, and algae cultivation for biofuel production is considered to be an important contribution to Greenhouse Gas (GHG) mitigation and energy security. In this paper, the algal biofuel potentiality in China was reviewed from the points of view of algal biodiversity, algal culture collection, GHGs (especially CO2) mitigation, and the availability of the required sunlight, wastewater and land resources. The cultivation of microalgae utilizing power plants gas with large amounts of CO2 and wastewaters from urban households, industry and animal husbandry are suitable for large scale production in China. Land is hardly a limitation for algae cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With support of GIS tools and Theil index, the spatial variance of urban energy consumption in China was discussed in this paper through the parallel comparison and quantitative analysis of the 30 provincial capital cities of mainland China in 2005, in terms of scale, efficiency and structure. The indicators associated with urban energy consumption show large spatial variance across regions, possibly due to diversities of geographic features, economic development levels and local energy source availability in China. In absolute terms, cities with the highest total energy consumption are mostly distributed in economic-developed regions as Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan Area, Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta of China, however, the per capita urban energy use is significantly higher in the Mid-and-Western regions. With regard to the energy mix, coal still plays the dominant role and cities in Mid-and-Western regions rely more on coal. In contrast, high quality energy carrier as electricity and oils are more used in southeast coastal zone and northern developed areas. The energy intensive cities are mainly located in the northwest, while the cities with higher efficiency are in southeast areas. The large spatial variance of urban energy consumption was also verified by the Theil indices. Considering the Chinese economy-zones of East, Middle and West, the within-group inequalities are the main factor contributing to overall difference, e.g., the Theil index for per capita energy consumption of within-group is 0.18, much higher than that of between group (0.07), and the same applies to other indicators. In light of the spatial variance of urban energy consumptions in China, therefore, regionalized and type-based management of urban energy systems is badly needed to effectively address the ongoing energy strategies and targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has become the largest CO2 emission country since 2014. The industrial sector is the largest contributor to CO2 emissions in China. This paper uncovers the spatiotemporal characteristics of the decoupling status of industrial CO2 emissions from economic growth at the provincial level during 1995–2019 in China and analyzed the structural characteristics of the industrial CO2 emissions. The results suggested that 2010 is an important turning point. Since 2010, the decoupling status of industrial CO2 emissions from economic growth has kept a continuously improving trend. During 2016–2019, all provinces achieved decoupling of the industrial CO2 emissions from economic growth. More than 20% achieved absolute strong decoupling. Four subindustries, including raw chemical materials and chemical products, production and supply of electric power and heat power, petroleum processing and coking products, and smelting and pressing of non-ferrous metals, with large CO2 emissions' contribution and a continuously increasing trend, should be paid more attention in the future CO2 reduction policies formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is a global leader in methanol production volume, while coal is a major feedstock. The country also has the world's largest commercial coal-to-methanol operations. Coal-based methanol is used widely within China and is a competitive substitute for gasoline. Owing to this, it is plausible that the price of coal may be linked to international crude oil prices, with methanol prices serving as the connecting channel. We add supporting evidence to a recently emerging area of literature and observe statistically significant relationships among the three prices, and, therefore, the influence from international crude oil and methanol prices on the coal price determination in China. This paper investigates the relationships among these prices for the period from January 2010 to December 2019 through spectral Granger causality analysis, alongside more traditional cointegration tests to develop a comprehensive picture of causal association between the price series in both the frequency and time domain. Cointegration is found in our tri-variate system while the frequency domain Granger causality tests reveal the long-run causality in all directions except from crude oil to methanol, thus, emphasizing the structure of coal price dependence. According to the generalized impulse response functions, the coal price reacts positively to shocks in crude oil prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is a large agricultural country with a high level of agricultural carbon emissions. Whether market prices can be used in agricultural production as a means of agricultural carbon emissions reduction is of great significance to improve the allocation of agricultural production factors and expand large-scale production. This paper applies an autoregressive distributed lag–pooled mean group(ARDL–PMG) model to evaluate the relationship between agricultural production factor prices, food consumption prices, and agricultural carbon emissions, using Chinese provincial panel data from 1994 to 2018. The results show that agricultural carbon emissions and agricultural production factor prices show environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) characteristics; agricultural carbon emissions and food prices show a U-shaped curve; and agricultural production factors are positively correlated with food price in both directions in the long-term. The results of Granger causality tests show that price is the cause of agricultural carbon emissions; the price of agricultural production factors and the price of food consumption are mutually causal. Such results have implications for price, agriculture, and environmental policies. The analysis implies that the market price can be applied to agricultural carbon reduction, which will help policymakers to implement effective price policies in order to reduce agricultural carbon emissions. One implication is that promoting the marketization of agricultural production factors and reducing price distortions will be conducive to carbon emissions reduction in agriculture, which in turn will increase food consumption prices. Therefore, subsidies are needed at the consumption end, which will eventually achieve further carbon emissions reduction at the production and consumption ends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has experienced rapid social and economic development in the past 40 years. However, excessive consumption of fossil fuel energy has caused an energy shortage and led to severe environmental pollution. To achieve sustainable development, China is striving to transform its growth mode. Adopting renewable energy (RE) including solar photovoltaic (PV) power is an effective measure. How to promote the further development of solar PV power under the scenario of China's aspirational target of carbon peak by 2030 and 20% RE ratio in the energy mix remains a theme that need to be addressed. This paper analyzes the potential opportunities and challenges confronting solar PV power in China. The analysis covers the dimensions of political, economic, social, and technological (PEST). The results revealed a significant prospect for the further deployment of solar PV power in the coming decades. The aggressive estimated installed capacity of solar PV power is expected to reach 80+ GW annually. To successfully achieve the goal of 80+ GW, barriers that hinder the further development of solar PV power have to be eliminated. Suggestions for policymakers include maintaining enforceability and continuity of policies, favorable financial supports, mandatory RE quotas for all parties, and supporting fundamental R&D. Suggestions for the solar PV industry include full utilization of integrated applications, set up an after-sales service network, collaborative innovation among the industry chain, and engaging in storage and hydrogen technology. The findings are greatly beneficial for policymakers and the solar PV industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green bonds have increasingly been utilized around the world as a source of financing for renewable energy development, designed with compliance requirements and measurable economic returns to investors, while mitigating climate change. However, the efficacy of green bond arranged in the emerging economies for financing renewable energy assets and how the underlying risks are managed have remained to be explored. The paper aims to examine the evolving green financial system sponsored by both public and private institutions in managing such risks within China's emerging economy. A case study of green financing for a bundle of wind power assets led by a state-owned enterprise (SOE) reveals an alternative approach by structuring public–private collaboration while stipulating market-based financial incentives to institutional stakeholders under a political economy. This institutional consortium is composed of a state development bank, a commercial bank, credit rating agencies, institutional and private investors, regional power purchasers, and carbon trading entities. Financial stakeholders' risk in such emerging sustainable investment is moderated by these participating institutions and structured "upsides" from carbon trading aligned with the framework of green finance and standards for green bond development. The results reveal the potentials of scaling up the development of renewable energy by adequately managing and sharing key risks, while allocating substantial funding into renewable energy projects under such a green financial system that is to be complementary with a scalable post COVID-19 economic recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, due to the recent unprecedented urbanization and industrialization, energy consumption in China is increasing at an enormous speed. However, this process should go hand in hand with sustainable energy development that is based on three interconnected dimensions: (i) energy security, (ii) energy affordability, and (iii) environmental sustainability. It becomes very obvious that an increase in energy efficiency leads to the increase in both energy security and environmental sustainability. Therefore, inadequate energy efficiency causes energy security and environmental sustainability issues, and thus negatively influences economic development of China (or any other country for that matter). This paper explores the intrinsic relationship among urbanization, industrialization, and energy security, as well as the influencing mechanisms of urbanization and industrialization on energy efficiency using a fixed effect model. The paper employs panel data from 30 provinces in mainland China collected in the time range from 2006 to 2015. Our results demonstrate that urbanization and industrialization can significantly improve energy efficiency. Although energy security level decreases considerably with the rise of energy consumption and population growth, the increase in urbanization and industrialization levels can increase energy security through energy efficiency improvements. Moreover, it appears that changes in disposable income and population structure do not alter the effects of industrialization and urbanization on energy security. We conclude that Chinese provinces with high and low urbanization levels should focus on technological innovation and increase industrial development and technological input, respectively. Local governments in China can formulate policies and regulations and promote urbanization according to local economic development and industrial and population structure. The paper also presents theoretical references and decision support that might help in developing local laws and regulations promoting energy efficiency during urbanization and industrialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural direct energy use is responsible for about 1–2% of global emissions and is the major emitting sector for methane (2.9 GtCO2eq y−1) and nitrous oxide (2.3 GtCO2eq y−1). In the last century, farm mechanisation has brought higher productivity levels and lower land demands at the expense of an increase in fossil energy and agrochemicals use. The expected increase in certain food and bioenergy crops and the uncertain mitigation options available for non-CO2 emissions make of vital importance the assessment of the use of energy and the related emissions attributable to this sector. The aim of this paper is to present a simulation framework able to forecast energy demand, technological diffusion, required investment and land use change of specific agricultural crops. MUSE-Ag & LU, a novel energy systems-oriented agricultural and land use model, has been used for this purpose. As case study, four main crops (maize, soybean, wheat and rice) have been modelled in mainland China. Besides conventional direct energy use, the model considers inputs such as fertiliser and labour demand. Outputs suggest that the modernisation of agricultural processes in China could have the capacity to reduce by 2050 on-farm emissions intensity from 0.024 to 0.016 GtCO2eq PJcrop−1 (−35.6%), requiring a necessary total investment of approximately 319.4 billion 2017$US. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to address a series of issues, including energy security, global warming, and environmental protection, China has ranked first in global renewable investment for the seventh consecutive year. However, developing a renewable energy industry requires a significant capital investment. Also, the international oil price fluctuations have an important impact on the stock prices of renewable energy firms. Thus, in order to provide implications for market investment as well as policy recommendations, this paper studied the spillover effect of international oil prices on the stock prices of China's renewable energy listed companies. We used a Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model with innovations using a Factor-GARCH (Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity) process to evaluate the impact of market co-movements and time-varying volatility and correlation between the international oil price and China's renewable energy market. The results show that the international oil price has a significant price spillover effect on the stock prices of China's renewable energy listed companies. Moreover, the fluctuations of international oil prices have an influence on the stock price variations of Chinese renewable energy listed companies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the concession period is one of the most crucial variables influencing the success of a photovoltaic (PV) power project under build-operate-transfer (BOT) mode, this paper presents a real option game model—which integrates the real option and cooperative game theory—to determine the optimal concession period of the BOT solar PV power project under policy incentives by considering the value of the option to defer. In the proposed model, an effective interval of concession period for the BOT project was identified by using a real option, and the equilibrium value of the concession period was obtained by applying classical optimization theory. To evaluate our model, we empirically determined the optimal concession period for the BOT solar PV power project in China, and a sensitivity analysis was conducted to demonstrate how relevant influential factors, which are presented in the model, affect the equilibrium value of the concession period and its effective interval. The results indicate that the current investment environment in China could successfully implement the BOT solar PV power project under policy incentives, including initial cost subsidy and the feed-in tariffs mechanism. While the high volatility of electricity demand, investment cost, and land-use rent fee can lead the failure of the BOT solar PV project implementation, promoting the technological development of PV power generation, maintaining the market stability, and increasing the policy incentives can help the BOT power project to be arranged with an optimal concession period. In addition, the feed-in tariffs mechanism is more helpful than the initial cost subsidy for winning the BOT contract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper conducts panel analysis to evaluate the effects of a structural economic shift from the industrial to the tertiary sector, a reduction in industrial overcapacity, and improvements in energy efficiency on energy consumption using data for 30 Chinese provinces from 1995 to 2015. We find that, at the national level, the structural shift to the tertiary sector, the reduction in cement and steel production, and the increase in energy efficiency in the industrial sector all have statistically significantly negative effects. We also divide the sample into three geographic and economic regions to evaluate regional differences. We find that the gross domestic product (GDP) share of the tertiary sector shows its greatest impact on reducing energy consumption in the eastern region, a decline in heavy industry production would reduce energy demand more in the central region, and improvement in industrial electricity efficiency would also help reduce energy consumption the most in eastern China. We also forecast energy consumption in China will reach 4.8–4.9 billion tonnes of coal equivalent (tce) in 2020 and further grow to 5.0–5.4 billion tce in 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overcapacity in China's coal industry has serious negative impacts on the rational allocation of coal resources and stable operation of the national economy. Since 2016, the Chinese government has implemented a series of de-capacity policies to optimise coal production capacity. Timely policy effect assessment is of great significance to the government to guide high-quality development of the coal industry. This paper first reviews the dilemma encountered by China's coal industry prior to 2016, and then analyses the progress and effect of coal industry de-capacity. The main results are as follows: (1) The capacity reduction is mainly distributed in the central and southwestern regions. Most of the coal mines are state-owned, and there is a prominent worker resettlement problem. (2) The capacity optimisation policy has accelerated the implementation of the overall spatial planning of China's coal supply. China's coal production centre has shifted from the central and eastern regions to the west, and the industry's high-quality development pattern has taken shape. (3) China's coal industrial profitability has constantly been improving, industry concentration has increased significantly, and coal mining has become safer. (4) Due to the regional heterogeneity, the de-capacity policy effect has significant differences in coal production capacity and employee reduction in various regions. Finally, regarding the optimisation of China's coal production capacity, some policy implications are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]