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According to Suhrawardi, there is a remarkable agreement between Plato's philosophy and Oriental Wisdom in general. This agreement, which is rooted in the Perennial Substance of Wisdom, not in purely historical influences, can be considered in 3 aspects: first, in terms of the main content of this wisdom; second, in terms of the method of its realization; and third, in terms of its mode of expression. The reason that Plato is highly esteemed by Suhrawardi seems, in addition to thematic agreement and unity, to be agreement in terms of method, which is something beyond philosophical arguments or, in other words, something beyond discursive wisdom, constituting the spiritual and initiatic dimension of Plato's philosophy that ultimately leading to the contemplation or vision of divine truths. In this research, we set out to further explore the thematic and especially the methodological agreement or rather the unity between Suhrawardi’s philosophy and Plato’s philosophy. Through this, we tried to clarify and verify the validity of Suhrawardi's claim about the close connection between Illuminationist Wisdom and Platonic philosophy. To achieve this goal, our focus was on the issue of Disengagement with Worldliness (Tajrid), or in Plato's words, the "practice of death," as well as its consequent goal -- "Godlikeness". The method used was refering to the original texts of these two philosophers to compare the concepts concerning the issue of Disengagement with Worldliness (Tajrid). In Suhrawardi and Plato’s works, in addition to discursive and argumentative expressions, symbolic expression had a very important place in conveying spiritual meanings and transcendent truths. The idea of symbolic expression, therefore, afforded a common fundamental element that enabled us to understand the agreement between Suhrawardi and Plato. Thus, the current research focused on the symbolic-allegorical expression of the issue of Tajrid. This paper has two main parts. First, there is a detailed discussion of the issue of Tajrid in the works of these two philosophers regatding the issue of Tajrid accounted as the central idea in the "method" of Illuminationist Wisdom and Platonic philosophy as a kind of "spiritual initiation". Then, the goal of Tajrid and the idea of Godlikeness is examined. It should be noted that the concept of philosophy or wisdom as a spiritual practice whose ultimate goal is to become Godlike relies on the homogeneity between human truth and divine truths. In other words, according to this concept, Man has a divine essence and thus, the capacity to achieve such a transcendent goal lies in his nature. Therefore, the beginning of spiritual practice is remembrance of Man’s divine essence, which is veiled by the constraints and contingencies of the natural and physical world in his present terrestrial state. By paying attention to the true self, the main stage of spiritual practice begins, that is the gradual withdrawal of ego immersed in worldly life and its concomitants through Tajrid or the practice of death. In both Suhrawardi and Plato's philosophies, Tajrid has two stages: (1) turning the soul away from the natural world by means of refinement and purification of the soul and (2) turning the soul towards the transcendent and divine truths. In the first stage, Man realizes that his soul is bound by the natural faculties of the soul on all sides; therefore, he strives to control the external and internal sense faculties as well as the two faculties of lust (concupiscence) and anger (irascibility). In the second stage, by acquiring certain knowledge, thinking about divine signs and benefactions, saying prayers and doing spiritual meditation, and refining the faculties of sensation and imagination by means of beautiful audiovisual forms, Man directs the whole soul to his own world -- the world of divine truths. In this second stage, love of beauty causes Man to die from his human-created qualities and become a mirror for all the divine attributes he has loved as transcendent truths. Hence, the goal of such a philosophy, which relies on the educative principle of Tajrid or voluntary death, is to become Godlike. This likeness to or reflection of the divine attributes, particularly according to Plato, is represented as the birth of true virtues, which, in principle, belongs to Divinity. Commensurate with the expressions of such lofty themes and meanings, symbols could be found in the works of these two philosophers, which despite their apparent differences, has a fundamental similarity and agreement with the expression of one and the same meaning. Symbols, such as trap, snare, leather, armor, tomb, and well, in Suhrawardi’s texts and shackles, chains, tomb, and coffin in Plato’s texts refer to the body and its faculties. Correlated with these symbols were the ones like liberation, cutting, and tearing, which refer to voluntary death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the challenges of philosophy is explanation of the relationship between the soul and the body. As it is difficult to understand this relationship, various allegories have been used in philosophy to express that relationship. Allegory is one of the most influential ways of conveying deep meanings and explaining sensible affairs. Since the transcendental knowledge and trans-sensory notions lie beyond the reach of the human senses, allegory can play an important role in getting such meanings across. They are expressed from different perspectives as follows: 1) God Almighty-world relationship; 2) captain-ship relationship; 3) form-matter relationship; 4) architect-building relationship; 5) rider-ridee relationship; 6) bird-cage relationship; 7) treefruit relationship; 8) fetus-uterus relationship; and 9) light-shadow relationship. Some philosophical allegories are not strong and appropriate to express the soul-body relationship, while some others can express this relationship properly. Each of the above-mentioned allegories has a special feature and they are not the same in terms of power of creation. Some similes express the point of resemblance more accurately. The greater the point of resemblance between the tenor and the vehicle is, the more powerful the allegory will be and the smaller that point is, the less influential the allegory will be. Differences in principles and viewpoints affect the type of allegory. The analogy of the soul and the body to the tree and fruit rests on the principles of transcendent wisdom. This analogy is at odds with other views. Allegories, such as captain and ship, architect and building, and bird and cage are more compatible with the Masha (peripatetic) perspective toward the soulbody relationship. In each of these analogies, each one of the tenors and vehicles has an independent and separate existence and there is a contingent rather than intrinsic relationship between them. This idea has no place in MullaSadra's approach, according to which the soul’s belonging to the body is intrinsic to the soul and the soul’s existence rests on its connection to the body. A variety of allegories about the soul-body relationship have been mentioned in religious teachings, such as the allegories of word and meaning, soul and wind, gem and coffer, soul and thin cloth, environment and body, knowledge and action, piled up garment, and value and action. Each of the philosophical and religious allegories has common implications including: a) acceptance of otherness and duality of the soul and the body; b) originality of the soul in relation to the body; c) trans-sensory and metaphysical nature of the soul; and d) longitudinal relationship of the soul and the body. This paper explains and analyzes these allegories and distinguishes between the strong and weak ones. Among the main features of religious allegories is attention to the invisible, metaphysical, and trans-sensory nature of the body. This feature has been considered in most religious allegories, such as meaning and word, soul and wind, knowledge and action, piled up garment, and value and action, but it has not been regarded in many philosophical allegories, such as captain and ship, form and matter, architect and building, shadow and under shadow, etc. although it is accepted in philosophy. One of the major shortcomings of philosophical allegories is that they highlight maximum duality between the soul and the body. At this maximum duality, the duality between the soul and the body becomes more pronounced. The soul and the body are transformed from a single interconnected truth into two independent and interconnected entities. There is maximum duality between the tenor and vehicle in allegories, such as captain and ship, form and matter, architect and building, and rider and ridee, while they are not suitable examples to express the relationship between the soul and the body. ….. The trans-sensory aspect of the soul is often evident in religious allegories and the communicative aspect possessed by a trans-sensory being is seen in the similes. Accordingly, they do not have such maximum dualistic allegories as some philosophical allegories do. Among religious similes, all, except the second one, have this feature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contribution of the research aspect to education is based on its being successful in providing qualified and innovative education. This principle is evident in theology and philosophy disciplines. To write valuable research papers, proper educational and systematic planning is of importance. Online or distance learning means that students are spatially distant from their professors and communicate indirectly. In this training, the interaction between students and teachers is done through technology and the design of learning environments can have a significant impact on the results of such learning. The Corona pandemic has forced us to resort to new educational mechanisms in all disciplines including theology and philosophy. In the present study, an attempt is made to run a survey to assess do's and don'ts, and opportunities as well as threats we have encountered. Although much research has been done on the philosophical and theological issues surrounding Corona in the short term, what has been explored in this study is the issue of teaching philosophy and theology in this period – an issue not addressed so far. For this purpose, the following two research questions are addressed: 1) what are the processes of online teaching?; and 2) what are the aspects of online education concerning philosophical and theological issues? The participants of the present study were students of philosophy and theology. To answer the first research question, the data were obtained from a total of 270 students and the answers of 157 students were categorized and analyzed to fulfill the second question. The results of the study regarding the first research question showed that if the role of the students is properly explained to them at the level of attitude, influence and motivation, perceived behavioral control, and cognitive engagement (which are all cognitive components in education), online education could have a positive effect. As a result, the quality of the educational performance of students could increase. Regarding the second research question, specific philosophical-theological issues were investigated. The results were categorized in the following five groups: 1) growing the existential views, 2) improving the issues related to the meaning of life, 3) the crisis of political and managerial philosophy (like health and economy), 4) accepting the newly-developed sufferings by human (referred to as Heavenly tests), and 5) the socio-governmental aspects of Corona. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mircea Eliadeh, in the role of a phenomenologist and mythologist of religious scholars, emphasizes on the religious-historical interpretation of hermeneutics as the best way to discover the meanings and interpretation of hidden messages of mythology, symbols and rituals, and one of its aspects examined. With the shamanism, it is a mystical aspect. This research seeks to study the Tamhidat-e of Ayn al-Qudat Hamadani provisions in view of the pluralistic views of Mircea Eliade in mythology, religious phenomenology, and hermeneutical religious studies. The mentioned work is one of the most valuable mystical texts in which the ultimate goal is to reach the level of complete religious and complete humanity and to attain the holy time which is in the form of dignity; in fact, man has been holy from the beginning of the time, But it has lost its growth in the world and it is considered a historical person. By adopting the intellectual framework of Eliade, based on the evidence in the Tamhidat, the authors of the paper try to obtain the result that many mythological thoughts are rooted in many years and very old habits that have evolved over the years of the year Data and other functions have been found, but still retain their existence and are repeated with respect to their sacredness and necessity. In this work, in addition to the description of how the creation of the universe and man, as well as the cause of its creation and its purposes, there are abundant narratives and mystical experiences. Mircea Eliadeh, as the interpreter of religious symbols, believed that religion refers to the experience of the sacred one, and the phenomenal religion uses historical documents to express the holy manifestation and the existential position and religious meanings presented in these phenomena. He believes that the myth is based on ontology, and it speaks only of facts and things that have actually happened and are fully manifested. According to Eliadeh, the truth is the Holy One, which is, in fact, really true; hence, the analysis based on the distinction between holy and unholy is the focus of his work. Mystical texts have received a great deal of mythological beliefs. Tamhidat is also full of cultural and religious information of the writer's time and can be reviewed and reviewed by the rules and principles of the science of religious mythology. In this research, in view of the necessity of knowing more scientifically how the reflection of mythological beliefs in the culture and the way of thinking and life of the people, especially the circle considered among Sufis and Gnostics, has been abandoned unconsciously by the abandonment of mythological rituals and thoughts. This text, which is one of the most important texts of Sufism, is examined according to the views of religious mythology, Mircea Eliadeh and his theoretical frameworks in his works. The study of the part of the phenomenology of religion, the views and views of Mircea Eliadeh, and the study of the quality and the nature of the relationship between mystical texts and religious mythological issues are urgently needed. One of the manifestations of mythology can be sought in its relation to religion and religious elements, and the topic that has been considered in most of the views of mythologists is the functions of myth. How the context is based on what the myth is shaped is more related to its origin, but along with this approach, awareness of the functions of myth is also considered. In this context, the link between myth and religion and the religious functions of the myth emerges as a subset of religious mythology. Mircea Eliadeh, with his research on myths and the symbolism of them, has been instrumental in explaining and illustrating the symbols in the myth. In his studies, he first emphasizes the sacredness of myths among the tribes, and in defining what this scholar presents to the history of religions of myth, the myth is "a manifestation of all and all sincerity". For experimental and rational minds, a natural situation or process, in the magicalreligious experience, is manifested as the manifestation of power or manifestation of the sanctity, and nature, exclusively by virtue of this manifestation of power and manifestations of holiness are a magical-religious theme, and thus are taken into account in religious phenomenology and religious history.The present study sought to address the multidimensional views of Mircea Eliadeh in mythology, religious phenomenology, and religious studies based on hermeneutics, which speaks in conjunction with the correlated points of religion and myth, and the mythical features, the symbolic of religions discusses the comparative study of the mystical text of the Provisions of the Imperialism of Hamedani. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper looks through Islamic Philosophy and Detachment Theory from the point of view of Mohammad Bāqir Majlisi. In fact, it aims to set a tribunal between Islamic Philosophy and Detachment School of thought in the view of the Second Majlesi, the author of Mir’āt al-Uqul fi Sharh Akhbār al-Rasul (the Mirror of Intellects on Description of Traditions of Prophet’s Descendants). The source for the study is mainly the book Al-Aghl val-Jahl (Intellect and Ignorance) and Al-Tawhid fi Kitab al-Kafi (Oneness of God in Kitab al- Kafi) along with Mohammad Baqer Majlesi’s interpretation of these two books. Majlesi’s rational method and the ontological principles he utilized to extract and deduce the impeccable Imam’s intention from his words are also investigated, compared to and analyzed with ideologies of Detachment Theology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the basic needs of human is spirituality. Spirituality is the inner connection of man with God, which affects various aspects of life. One of the dimensions of the subject of spirituality is its relation to other concepts, including religion, ethics, mysticism, and concepts of this kind. One of the concepts that discusses its relation to spirituality is the concept of theology. The meaning of theology is the systematic explanation of God and the relationship of God with the world and the same system of belief. One of the Christian theologians who deals with spirituality and theology, is McGrath, a professor of theology at the University of Oxford. In the field of Islam, Martyr Motahhari also deals with the relationship of spirituality with beliefs. He is an influential scholar of contemporary religious thought in the Muslim world. The purpose of this paper is to examine the views of these two thinkers on the relationship between spirituality and theology with a comparative and descriptive-analytic approach based on their work. Although both thinkers have lived in two religious traditions and periods of time, both of them have been bound up with their religion. Both were concerned with the comprehensive, accurate, and systematic expression of religious doctrines. Both sought to strengthen the religiosity of humans in achieving prosperity and salvation. Both have focused on the issues and concerns of the society of their time. Therefore, their views are comparable. Considering the importance of spirituality in the contemporary world, the necessity of dialogue among religious followers in today's world, the importance and capacity of the topic of spirituality as a common topic for dialogue and the place of comparative studies in order to better understand the topic, the necessity of this research is determined. From McGrath’s point of view, spirituality has a strong link with theology. In his view, spirituality is based on knowledge and, of course, is also a component of feeling, tendency and personal experience. The other component of spirituality is action and behavior based on personal beliefs and experiences of God. In his view, Christian spirituality should not be ignored of social conditions. Spirituality from the perspective of Martyr Motahhari is a comprehensive concept that is the result of all the teachings of Islam. Spirituality is based on true faith that embraces all aspects of human life. Martyr Motahhari believes that faith has two basic components of knowledge and tendency. In other words, he believes in epistemic and emotional aspects of faith. In his view, true faith is meaningful with these two components, and the lack of each one leads to flawed faith. He not only believes in faith based on knowledge, but also believes in knowledge as a necessary part of faith and as its components. From the point of view of both thinkers, spirituality is an important element in religion. Both emphasize religious spirituality based on religious teachings and beliefs. Spirituality should be theocentric and based on the holt text. Both emphasize the comprehensiveness of spirituality. Both believe in the relationship between spirituality and beliefs and the foundation of beliefs for spirituality. They do not regard spirituality and faith, apart from knowledge and belief, as well as action and social life. The existence of similarities indicates the importance of the spirituality and spiritual needs of human, the necessity of religious spirituality and the attention to the theological foundations of spirituality. Despite these similarities, there are some differences. Although McGrath insists beliefs must be firm, some Christian beliefs are not. For example, the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus is a belief in the opposite of reason. Also, the revelation and infallibility of the text of the Quran, as the sacred text of the Muslims and the source of spirituality, can be proved on the basis of rational and religious reasons. But this is not true for the Bible and there is no valid rational or historic reason for the heavenly nature of the whole Bible. The New Testament is a collection of records of some of the apostles. In addition, during the Biblical historical critique, it has been proven that some of its books do not belong to their authors. Regarding the Old Testament, in addition to the Quranic reasons, there are several reasons in the Biblical historical critique that shows that the Old Testament, especially Torah, has been altered and distorted. It seems that the differences are due to differences in the worldview of two thinkers, most of which are due to the religious tradition that they belong to. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early Islamic centuries (1st to 3rd A.H) are significant in every scholarly study of different periods in Iranian history due to their intense transformation and profound developments within the Iranian society and also the encounter of Zoroastrian and Islamic worldviews and different methods of resistance against Arab domination. Zoroastrianism, as a religion, lost its dominant position and was gradually replaced by Islam. Thus, maintaining the integrity of Zoroastrian society became the main concern of the Zoroastrian priests, which can evidently be witnessed in apocalyptic texts of Zoroastrian faith. Accordingly, resistance against Arab invaders lost its initial violence and political fervor and took in a new momentum in the form of maintaining the integrity of Zoroastrian religion and society and concentration on the doomsday and spiritual salvation. Zoroastrian apocalyptic texts contained teachings that tried to adapt different fields of life in Iranian society facing spread of Islam and the Arab domination of Iran. Although the history of these texts returns to oral narratives before Sasanians, but after the transition of Iranian society from oral literature to Sasanian writing literature and the compilation of Zoroastrian texts in Islamic period, the writing of apocalyptic texts also became important. By reviewing these texts, it would be possible to find out important political and social changes of Iranian society in the first Islamic centuries. Within this framework, the rise of non- Zoroastrian Iranian movements during the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.H against the Caliphate were deemed as a dangerous heresy and a serious challenge to Zoroastrian social identity and were vehemently criticized in Zoroastrian apocalyptic texts. In other words, in the condition that there was no hope for Zoroastrian government to be restored, the preservation of the religious integrity of the people became a concern for the Zoroastrian clergy that became an apocalyptic cultural model, which was threatened by political and religious movements such as Behāfarīd, Abu Muslim and Bābak uprisings (that had a sectarian or non-Zoroastrian nature) in addition to the Arabs and the caliphate. Since these texts were written and analyzed at the same time as political events, it can be said that apocalyptic literature has been partly indicative of the reaction of Zoroastrian society to its events. In the other words, the suppression of local sustainability along the lack of belief of society towards the fall of Sasanian provided the necessary grounds for the emergence of apocalyptic literature and its related teachings. These teachings opposed all political and religious actions which were challenging for Zoroastrians in order to preserve their social identity in that difficult and complicated condition. Regardless of the social, political, and religious aspects of the movements, their leaders sought to combine the ideas of ancient religion in order to gain support of different groups of people who were incompatible from religious point of view. But this led to their defeat and the emergence of numerous religious and political sects, which themselves were the heritage of contradictions and enhanced intellectual and cultural tensions. From the point of view of the Zoroastrian apocalyptic texts, these movements were not only in the interest of the national and religious interests of the Zoroastrian community, but also threatened their coherence and integrity. The emergence of such movements, especially in the second and third centuries A.H, showed that despite the emphasis of the Zoroastrian clergy on the refusal of the Zoroastrians to cooperate with them, a wide range of society, hoping to escape Arab domination or to improve its economic conditions and social status accompanied these movements. Regardless of the political results of the movements, which often failed, its harmful consequences in the vulnerability of Zoroastrian community's unity and solidarity should be mentioned. In apocalyptic Zoroastrian texts, the leaders of these movements, such as Abu Muslim and Bābak, were condemned and their uprising was mentioned as apocalyptic catastrophe. On the other hand, the beliefs of the followers of Abu Muslim and Bābak as the promised saviors shows domination of apocalyptic thoughts in Iranian society in that period. On the other words, viewpoint of some Iranians towards Abu Muslim, Bābak and other leaders of movements against caliphate as religious leaders and promised saviors, was influenced by apocalyptic concepts of Zoroastrianism such as expectation and emergence of a savior. This paper aims to study the evolutions in the first Islamic centuries from Zoroastrian world-view in Iranian society, applying written evidence from 11th century (A.D), with descriptive and analytical method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropology and the discussion of human being is one of the subjects that always had been in the center of debate. Who is human being? What is his essence? What is his purpose of life? A look at Hadith and Qur’an shows that the human being has the capacity of resemblance to God. It has been realized in the perfect man who is the manifestation of God’s names and attributes. Although Allame Jafari focuses on mystical aspect of human being, because of various reasons and causes, including being familiar to the Western thinkers, he expand the region of anthropology outside of the mystical boundaries, e.g. psychological and sociological aspects. This paper aimed at showing similarities as well as differences between these two thinkers. Furthermore, we will determine why Erich Fromm was so interesting to Allame Jafari? According to Allame Jafari, human being consists of two different aspect: soul and body, which the first aspect is more important. In soul there is “ego”. While other parts of body work mechanistic, ego is conscious of its actions and other part’s actions. In order to achieve the end of life, he must be guided by means of which he could elevate over the shadow of life. Utilizing his internal abilities, including intellect conscience, man transcendence of natural ego and achieve his perfection. This stage, which he calls intellectual life, is full of consciousness and will and is leading to the perfection. Instead of traversing the way of perfection, he may be alienated which consists of two kinds: positive alienation and negative alienation. On the other hand, for Erich Fromm, the main problem is the essence of man. According to him, it is very difficult to present a rigid definition of human being. Thus, instead of appealing to the concept of substance, he utilizes internal contradictions of human. The man is some kind of animal but all of his instincts aren’t in harmony of his environment as well as his life. His defections in this filed lead him to learn. His characteristic is consciousness of his past, future and his death. Through this, he overcomes the nature. While he changes his environment to be a suitable place for human being, he finds a gap between his animal status and his status as a conscious being. He has two choice: downgrade to animal status of his ancestors or training his powers in the way of history in order to achieve growth and transcendence. In fact, history is the road of man’s growth which he build by means of his freewill and freedom until he reaches to his perfection i.e. justice, love and thought. For Fromm, man creates his essence, though he may be alien of his essence because of certain events and submit before external powers. Fromm calls this idolatry. In this situation, man passes his power to external things and instead to himself, he loves another external thing. Review There are certain similarities between them. It seems that the most important influence of Fromm on Allameh is psychological aspects of his thought. For Allameh, the life of man is meaningful only when he elevates from the boundaries of biological life and reaches to transcendence. Fromm holds such belief. Also, for Allameh, same as Fromm, man has no rigid essence, but he must manifest his potentialities. The idea that human being has no rigid essence has no root in Islamic thought and thus it seems that Allameh has borrowed from Fromm and other Western thinkers. Fromm believes that man must elevate from his natural bundries and utilizing his reason, he must move to perfection and transcendence. His optimistic approach is in accordance with Allameh’s ideas and in disagreement with Fraud’s thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essence of transcendent God’s knowledge, state of his knowledge before creation and the way of his knowledge to temporal variables are three important issues of his knowledge. These three are discussed both in philosophy and Kalam. In this article, based on a newly published work of Mulla Shamsa - named Khafri’s Review on Sharh Elahiyat Tajrid of Ghoshji about Divine Knowledge and Power- and some of his other works, we have been trying to present Shamsa’s answer. As will be described in this paper, he believes in knowledge of entity to entity for God, and calls it intense detailed knowledge by presence as unnamed meaning. He has presented some objections to Ibn-Sina’s view and believes that those are misunderstandings of Sheikh al-Raeis’s view. He thinks with his theory we can get an interpretation of Ibn-Sina’s view that Sohrevardi’s and Khaje-Nasir’s objections are answered. Although Mulla Shamsa, influenced by Hekmat Eshragh, accept the division of knowledge to by presence and acquired and in precise look only accepts knowledge by presence and believes that the acquired one backs to by presence, but does not admit some definitions of knowledge like attribution of knower to cognitions and by this, shows his independent way from Shiraz school. In Hashiiyeh, he reasons that since presence of objects for God is stronger than theirs for themselves, so the God’s knowledge to his nature is his knowledge to others and he believes that knowledge by presence comes true either by presence of cognition itself or presence of something more intense than presence of knowing itself, and knowledge of God is from second kind. This theosopher philosopher in Masalek Al-Yaghin introduces God’s knowledge a third kind of knowledge to show that calling God’s knowledge by presence or strongest knowledge by presence is not all of his theory but it has another aspect that is being detailed before creation. The philosopher of Gilan thinks both kinds of knowledge cause need to others for God and from this point of view he differs from Illuminationist philosophers and Theologians, giving a special interpretation from Ibn-Sina. Mulla Shamsa believes that the detailed knowledge of entity to entity for God is comprehensive and includes all aspects of his knowledge and explains it with two rules; first, knowledge itself is an absolute perfection for being as a being. Second, denying detailed knowledge in entity is the same as denying perfection from entity of God. The result of these two rules is proving detailed knowledge for God. He denies the attribute of non-detailed knowledge from God’s entity as argued by Peripatetic who told detailed knowledge is not perfection for entity in grade of entity. The exegete author believes God’s knowledge to effects is active one and knowledge of entity to entity is detailed knowledge that is united with entity. The God’s knowledge to creatures is not the creatures themselves (as Sohrevardi thought) but it is just God’s knowledge to his entity. Then, Mulla Shamsa’s intention from detailed knowledge is not like the famous meaning but it is derived from Ibn-Sina’s opinion. The detail and brevity, which are in common use of philosophers, in Mulla Shamsa’s view are attributes of everything other than God (cognitions). Then, basis of knowledge would be the entity of transcendent God and so he does not admit existence of grades in God’s knowledge and refer them back to cognitions which are not basis of his knowledge. Mulla Shamsa clarifies the knowledge of before creation with his special theory on God’s knowledge to others. According to this theory, knowledge to everything other than God is the same as knowledge of entity to entity. In this way, the problem of knowledge to non-existence would be solved, although he has not made any mention to this problem and its solution based on his theory. About God’s knowledge to variables, Hakim Mulla Shamsa mentions the putting down of suspended forms and acquired knowledge to Ibn-Sina by Sohrevardi in Mashare and Motarehat which was spread between late philosophers. This divine philosopher thinks because of denying acquired knowledge by Ibn-Sina in Shefa, the objections of Khaje Nasir don’t need any answer. He also believes excommunication of Ibn-Sina by Ghazali and others is because of their misunderstanding from Shekho Al-Raeis idea about Knowledge to details since they thought his intention about universal science means ignorance to temporal details which was not his purpose. Therefore, we can conclude that Mulla Shamsa’s idea about God’s knowledge is a kind of extending the theory of Ibn- Sina’s, especially about universal knowledge to temporal details. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The two issues, death and the hereafter, play an irrefutable role in explaining the meaning of life. While using a comparative analytic method to analyze Avicenna’s and Ibn Arabi’s points of view in this regard, this paper explores points of view supporting and opposing their statements. To both of them, mankind’s this-worldly life, without belief in the hereafter and immortality, and without achievement of eternal salvation, does not possess a reasonable goal, a considerable value, and a defensible function. Although both of them agree on issues such as an optimistic attitude towards death, the absolute dependence of the hereafter on the thisworldly life, belief in both the physical and spiritual aspects of the hereafter, but apart from the fact that Avicenna explores these issues through his rational method, and Ibn Arabi through combining the two methods: intuition and referring to the Qur’anic verses and the traditions, these two thinkers have two different views on other issues, such as their perception of the physical hereafter, the explanation of the proportion between mankind’s two existential essences, the topic of eternity, and dealing with the issue of fear of death. The importance of addressing this issue arises from the fact that as the issue of the meaning of life, like an ever-lasting stream full of adventure, has approached the recent centuries that feature industrial and technological development and increased social welfare and bio-facilities, it has become more highlighted and controversial for multiple reasons. In the meantime, what has made this issue face a more serious challenge is the issue of death and the quality of the hereafter. The emergence of atheistic schools, such as: Marxism and materialism, which have introduced death as the end of human life, and which have considered the hereafter as an unreasonable and unjustifiable issue, has made mankind face the following serious question: “If this is the case, will this short life with a great deal of all kinds of hardships and pain worth living?”, “Does our existence basically lead to a strategy other than what we see and hear?”, and “Is it possible to imagine any functions for life other than satisfying the lusts and animal instincts?” This way, death finds its own place in the course of human life. Avicenna and Ibn Arabi have made efforts to remove the ambiguity of this mysterious fact as far as possible through reason and thought, and have shed light on the dark angles of this perpetual concern of human beings, so that both; life can find meaning in the light of the reality of death, and death can become a desirable thing in transitions through life. Avicenna defines death as follows: “Death is nothing but the separation of the immaterial spirit from its material attachments. Death is like a blacksmith's tools and equipment when he leaves those tools and equipment. Avicenna’s attention to death, as the final point of mankind’s thisworldly life, stems from his attention to the fact that the misunderstanding and misrepresenting of death can greatly harm the attitude that “life is meaningful”. His research into death begins by exploring how the soul emerges and explaining the relationship between the soul and the body in mankind’s this-worldly life. In the Soul section of The Book of Healing, he emphasizes the creation of the soul by denying its existence prior to the existence of the body, and recognizes the creation of the soul to be simultaneous with that of the body, albeit he regards the body as a tool for the soul as well as its realm. According to Avicenna, fear of death is the greatest fear that seizes humans. The main cause of this fear is mankind’s ignorance, and Avicenna’s solution is paying attention to the fact that while leaving the body, the spirit continues its life in an intact manner by cutting its bodily attachments, thus achieving its true salvation. According to Avicenna, the necessity of a meaningful life (at least in its purposeful perception) is belief in the existence of the hereafter, which is subordinate to the acceptance of the independence of the soul. But in his definition of death and life, Ibn Arabi considers ignorance equal to death in the sense of nonexistence and annihilation, whereas most people consider benefiting from wealth and position as a sign of life. But death, in the sense of alertness and wakefulness, is what he calls a "Gate towards God", in case of whose absence, nobody and no nations will succeed in their desires and goals. Therefore, his advice to anybody who aspires for a meaningful life is that he or she mortify his or her own senses and their achievements, and listen to his or her own inner call, which is full of divine inspirations. This way, a human achieves the ultimate meaning of life. On the other hand, he regards death as a separation wall between the beloved and the human, who is very eager to overwhelm this obstacle and pass through it to visit their beloved as soon as possible. But since this is out of their power and authority, they have to be patient and disappointedly wait until the period of this "blessing"; i.e. life, ends, and the obstacle is removed. Although Ibn Arabi regards death as the separation of the soul from the material body, which has brought its sensory life, elsewhere, he avoids using the word death, and is more willing to call it “glad tidings about reunion”. But by emphasizing the inability of reason in all areas related to the hereafter, and relying on intuition from his heart and narrative sources, Ibn Arabi regards the physical hereafter as being decisive and essential, and considers belief in the mere spiritual hereafter as being due to ignorance of existential essences. In this regard, he says: “This group has been ignorant of the fact that there are two essences: the essence of bodies and the essence of spirits. They have tried to prove the latter, and have neglected the former. But we take both of them into consideration.” Accordingly, he considers both the physical and spiritual aspects for the hereafter, except that he has his own interpretation of the physical hereafter. “When God takes mankind to himself, he gives them a body, but not this earthly body, but rather something deserving the domain to which they have been transferred. That place is home of eternity and a house for eternal life, which is consistent with a moderate existence, leading neither to death nor to the disintegration of parts. Since the misrepresenting of the hereafter can disrupt the meaningfulness of life, Ibn Arabi tries, in the light of the holy Qur’anic verses, to depict a realistic image of the truth of the hereafter and mankind’s status and life in it. In this regard, since both absolute disappointment and false and illusory hope act like bandits on this path, he mixes the hereafter with a kind of fear and hope. If the main benefit of the topic of meaningfulness is to find the spirit of hopefulness towards life, and to be free from suffering from purposeless and absurdism, exploring Ibn Arabi’s works and paying attention to his special attitude toward the meaningfulness of life, in the light of belief in death and the hereafter, can be an appropriate way to achieve this goal. Considering the image that Ibn Arabi has presented of death and the hereafter, and on the assumption that we ponder and correctly perceive these concepts, in addition to the fact that no doubt will remain about the inherent value and usefulness of the tiny and huge streams of this worldly life, it is also likely that in the light of this perception, human life becomes filled with enthusiasm for traveling from this house to the eternal house, and thus becoming free from the constraints of materiality and the miracles of material and bodily pleasures. And this is the exact final point of all efforts having been made by Ibn Arabi to lead humans toward this pleasant stage and brilliant point of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper examines the role of epistemic virtues in the formation of intellectual identity and its impact on improving our truth-seeking behaviors. A epistemic virtue is a special faculty or trait of a person whose operation makes that person a thinker, believer, learner, scholar, knower, cognizer, perceiver, etc., or causes his intellectual development and perfection, and improves his truth-seeking and knowledge-acquiring behaviours and places him on the path to attain understanding, perception and wisdom. Virtue epistemology is a set of approaches in contemporary epistemology that regards knowledge as "a true belief arising from humans epistemic virtues." Virtue responsibilism and Virtue reliabilism are two important approaches to virtue epistemology that differ together in their attitude to the nature of epistemic virtue. Responsibilisms regards epistemic virtues as an acquired character traits that must be attained through practice and training with plenty of effort from the agent who possesses the will. In contrast, virtue reliabilisms considers epistemic virtues as reliable and innate cognitive faculties, and believes that this natural faculties has been placed in the human being from the very beginning and, if used in the appropriate condition and in a proper environment, is reliably truth-conducive. So virtue epistemology, which is distinguished from belief-based analytical epistemology by focusing on the cognitive character of the agent rather than the belief, regards epistemic virtues as the constructive factor of the epistemic agent and the condition of reaching the truth. From the two approaches of virtue reliabilism and virtue responsibilism, this paper focuses on the second approach and with using of the nine-fold virtues, that Jason Baehr posed, shows how to make epistemically good and thinker human by utilizing these virtues and avoiding the corresponding vices and through this, gained the truth in various epistemic areas. After explaining these virtues and their role in the two mentioned domains based on the virtue epistemology, the significance of this relationship in the view of Mulla Sadra as an example of Islamic philosophy is examined, For the reason that he sees knowledge as the produce of some factors that epistemic virtues is considered part of them. In the view of Sadra, epistemic virtues is the specific attributes and traits of reason faculty that their function causes man to be a very good and strong perciever, and their actual possesion or their gradual acquisition leads to the perfection of the soul and the dignity of human existence. In a new theory of soul - knowledge, he considers the journey of the soul from the outset as evolutionary journey, and, on the other hand, he considers all human activities directly as an activity of the soul (epistemic agent), which he performs through his own faculties. As a result, the soul is a increasing and evolving being, while at the same time acquiring knowledge is also from its own activities, and therefore the factors that make up the soul are also influential in its products. Now, as knowledge comes from soul exposure to the outside world, the more this soul is refined from pollutions and adorned to virtues, the better reflection from reality will be. Undoubtedly, the desire to engage in the process of truth-seeking and the responsible use of cognitive virtues and skills lead man to a desirable goal (recognition of truth) and forms his true intellectual identity. In the end, the paper suggests that because of the importance of epistemic virtues in the improvement of truth-seeking behaviors, educating and cultivating of these types of virtues should be part of the spoken and written course content of universities and schools, and must be proper critical thinking is institutionalized and strengthened in the spirit of community members. Educational resources contain a wide range of information that can deeply influence our epistemic behaviors and actions. Hence, it is necessary to include praised cognitive skills and epistemic virtues training in them. Teachers play an important role in educating and developing epistemic virtues as part of the formal curriculum content of educational centers, perhaps as part of critical thinking and logic courses. The formal education of epistemic virtues and the creation of opportunities for practicing and exercising them will be a good starting point for institutionalizing and developing admired cognitive skills among members of the community. In a society where individuals in their epistemic processes use their own cognitive virtues and organize their beliefs on their basis, the community itself and the social relations will also be virtuous, because the necessity of such an virtues is that individuals interact with their peers and In these interactions, rule virtue. Observing fairness towards others, intellectual humility, intellectual generosity, courage against miscreant and one who has weak arguments, observance of neutrality and other epistemic virtues, if it is to be found in societies as a habit and praised skill, then that society will be virtuous and its relations will be healthier and with the cultivating of those virtues, Intellectual and moral development will also become easier and more common. Intellectual virtues (or praised cognitive skills) should be taught to the community members, so that they display such characteristics when engaging in social activities, whean expressing opinions, when doing research, and so on. It is important to change our education policies, because the decay of praised cognitive skills leads to devastating consequences for intellectual identity and the truth-seeking and knowledgeacquiring behavior of the community members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to Muslim philosophers thought of the divine agent, issues from the One except one. It discusses the history of philosophy from the first principle to Pre-Socratic era. They hold that one thing, everything comes and used about natural agents. But Muslim philosophers inspired by the teachings of Plotinus, the”al-Wahid” principle of a pseudo-Greek philosophy adopted and it is without placing it among the philosophical issues, determining criteria, it is God's divine agent. Muslim philosophers to prove “al-Wahid” principle the argument presented which can be criticized. This article aims with regard to the historical development of this discussion; we review how it is from the Greek context to Islamic philosophy and criticism from the Muslim philosopher's viewpoint. Introduction The well-known principle of "al-Wahid la YosdarAnho Ella al-Wahid" in Islamic philosophy is one of the philosophical rules that have historically rooted in ancient Greece. In Greece, this rule can be considered the remains of Anaximander, and in the Islamic world it also begins with Farabi and turns into IbnSina's argument."al-Wahid" in the Islamic world is also one of the controversial rules in philosophy, which faced theologians'disbelief, and their reason was the limitation of the absolute power of excellence by this rule.This matter became so important that even those who agreed to this rule treated in a non-rational manner with opponents, some of whom would be referred. This is while the Greek scholars have discussedthe referral of diversities in the early principle of the One oral-Wahid in natural subjects.But Muslim scholars have spoken in real simple one, namely, the Divinity(Divine Agent), and have stated that nothing but an EffectorFirst Intellect, is not exerted from it.The provisions "al-Wahid" are that it does not arise from a single cause for more than one direct and indirect Effectbecause it is the one.This article seeks tocriticize the common view on the rule of al-Wahid by distinguishing between divine subjects and natural subjects andthat each one has its own rulings.In this paper, the historical course of this discussion in Greek and Pseudo-Greek philosophy and the Islamic world is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this essay, an attempt is made to reflect on the relation between philosophy and Humanities, with a new look and attention to its hermeneutical foundations. The assertion of this study is that there is every kind of branch of knowledge that exists in the philanthropists, which is based on a metaphysical and philosophical look that is based on a hermeneutic foundation. Hence, for Humanities, there is no possibility of spontaneity in philosophy and metaphysics. According to the relation that man has with understanding and in general, "hermeneutics", we have spoken about the pluralism in the field of philosophy and metaphysics, and we showed how different disciplines Which is in the field of humanism, must inevitably be based on a general and profound view that reveals itself in the domain of excellence, which is metaphysical knowledge. At the end of this paper, we have shown how, based on this hermeneutical foundation, the possibility of the emergence of "special metaphysics", based on the ideas on the relation between philosophy and Humanities, and the points that can exist in the relation between metaphysics and scholars of Humanities, It is possible to speak and how the holiness in such a situation (according to our indigenous, national, religious, and cultural needs) is matured and perfected, and we have also pointed out that how can one find a way through the relations that can exist between philosophy and Humanities? "Philosophical Hermeneutics," or more precisely, "hermeneutical philosophy" is a phenomenological approach to the category of "understanding," which the philosophical foundation reflects on the understanding and process of realization of understanding. Therefore, all human existential proportions are formed on the basis of the understanding and relationship of the deity with the being, and all predecessors, preconceptions and predecessors constituting the existential identity of his understanding, and of course, may originate from a diverse range of subjects, such as society, religion, politics, culture, The family ... and many other things that somehow compromise human qualities or, in the words of Heidegger, in the universe. Of course, this expression should not lead to the illusion that the criterion and the areas of truth are lost, and that pluralism occurs in the realm of knowledge, and ultimately leads to relativism and skepticism. Because Heidegger himself was also aware of this, he spoke of the remoteness of understanding, which is an integral part of the structure and conditionality of understanding, and understanding without it is not possible. Dasein, though initially, approaches his identification with his earlier understanding. But there is the possibility of rival projections that, with consideration of the subject, will be successively combined to achieve a meaningful unity for Dasein. Therefore, the mission of the practice of understanding and interpretation is to find suitable projections, and in these projections, with different origins of understanding and interpretation, different horizons are intermingled and the possibility of dialogue between them is provided. This discernment is more in the field of Humanities, since, as mentioned at the beginning of this essay, the foundations of methodology, ontology, anthropology, and epistemology, and many other such metaphysical foundations interfere in the understanding and interpretation and process. Despite this interdependence, which occurs in the process of understanding and interpretation, it can be spoken in the context of the philosophic and social as a result of the plurality and multiplicity of metaphysical foundations of humanism or socialism with a religious or secular, Islamic or Christian and Jewish character. Because that stipulates this waiver. Even more so, we can speak of religious and Islamic culture from various religious and Islamic diversities, and, on the other hand, under Western culture and civilization, we also see different scholars based on different philosophies and philosophical schools. Turning to the hermeneutic foundation in this article, the groundwork of ideas and theories, and theorizing reflection and exploration in diverse and varied approaches to the philosopher's will provide. The attentiveness of opinion and dialogue between philosophers and specialists in humanities leads to a desirable outcome if, on the one hand, the philosopher and the scholars of philosophy of studies are in the realm of experiences associated with humanism, in such a way that he addresses the main methods and fundamental concepts in which Science is used to recognize. On the other hand, those working in the field of Humanities must also become acquainted with the language of philosophers, so that they can work together in a mutually beneficial way and open up new horizons. Regarding what was said in this essay, it becomes clear that the philosopher (with the new approach we talked about in this essay) cannot provide for metaphysical philosophies and contemplations, but at the same time, given the pluralism that exists in philosophical reflections We are confronted with a large number of philosophers and philosophical schools that may have a fundamental difference between them while they share common ground in their thoughts. There are various approaches philosophers can have on certain issues such as being, truth, human beings, society, religion, etc., as well as the attention of philosophers and metaphysical subjects to the achievements of other branches of human sciences and sciences, and as a result These interdisciplinary studies also lead to a variety of different perspectives and developments in various branches of folklore. Humanities in the contemporary world are faced with a fundamental challenge. Contemporary humanities based on the principles of theology, anthropology and epistemology and other basic principles, and so far as these foundations, with regard to the scientific and epistemic heritage of mankind, do not change in other branches of science, we cannot see a change in the native and patriotic Humanities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is going to introduce and compare Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Andrew Feenberg's views on technology, and speak of their different solutions to get rid of the problems of modern technology. And finally, it presents a strategy which is approved by both of them and helps us to deal with technology better. The order of the issues discussed in the article is as follows: firstly, their discussions with regard to the technology in three areas of “nature of the modern technology”, “its pathology”, and “the proposed solution to deal with its problems” will separately be presented; secondly, their views are compared and their common points as well as their differences in the three areas and in general are pointed out; and eventually, a consensual solution to encounter this modern phenomenon better is provided. Nasr believes that modern technology after industrial revolution is essentially different from traditional technology. Unlike traditional technology, modern technology has a secular humanistic value orientation, has a close relationship with modern dominating science, and has cut off its relationship with art. This technology has done a lot of damages to the human in three areas of individual life, social life, and environment including the decline of creativity and skill, dullness and boredom, the increase of greediness and consumerism, and the emergence of spiritual crisis (individual life), population explosion, and the intensification of global poverty along with the social class gap (social life), air pollution, global warming, extinction of many animal species, and abusing the animals for medical experiments (environment). To encounter this modern phenomenon and its damages, Nasr believes that we should avoid modern technology and return to the traditional technology as much as possible. However, Andrew Feenberg takes a non-essentialist and historical look at modern technology and states that it should be examined in two different levels: 1. Primary level of decontextualizing and 2. The level of recontextualizing. Accordingly, in the early level of instrumentalization, the instruments and humans are separated from their original contexts based on their affordance and in the form of some tools and machines are only reduced to their useful features. But, in the second level, regarding some social requirements such as aesthetic and ethical consideration, these simplified objects which are in the form of tools and machines are designed and, in fact, recontextualized. Feenberg takes three major features for technology into account: 1. Social relativity, which means that the success of the technology is defined differently in different communities; 2. Value-orientation: what it wants to say is that in the second level and based on various designs, technology brings along certain values; 3. Undetermination: which is saying that technology does not have unilinear progress, and people can change its evolution process. With regard to the pathology of the modern technology, Feenberg follows the leaders of Frankfurt School, and mostly emphasizes the damages which lead to the increase of global poverty and social class gap. Finally, his solution is to democratize the designing and producing process of technology; that is people should try really hard to gain enough information about various types of technology and by planning the protest campaigns either correct or stop the production of harmful technologies. Comparing these two point of views, one can say that at least apparently when it comes to providing a strategy not only do they reject each other's solution, but also contempt and redicule one another. However, as far as the pathology is concerned, they have many common points. Unlike Feenberg, Nasr, first of all, does not mention any positive points about modern technology at all, and has a very pessimist look at the consequences of this phenomenon. Secondly, Nasr believes that these damages are caused by modern technology, but Feenberg argues that the damages are caused by the designing phase of some of the technologies. Thirdly, contrary to nasr's pathology, Feenberg pathology does not talk of spiritual pathology and is only concerned with worldly and material issues. Finally, the comparison shows that these differences are due to the fundamental differences between the two in the important stage of phenomenology of technology, because Nasr has an essentialist and quite negative view toward technology, but Feenberg's view is historical and constructive. Despite the fact that both of them consider technology as an unneutral and value-oriented phenomenon, Nasr believes that technology has a special culture, that is the materialistic culture of the earth which is pursued by great greed while Feenberg does not think so. At last, Nasr speaks of reforming the production of modern technology so desperately that one senses determination, but Feenberg, pointing out undetermination, rejects this desperate view. Regarding the large number of differences between these two views, at the first glance it seems that finding a consensual solution would not be possible; however, given that both of these thinkers put the main burden of responsibility on the users and peoples' shoulders, one can come to one consensual strategy: people should say no to the technologies which are in conflict with their desired culture as much as possible, and also avoid buying and using damaging technologies. This type of dealing, as Nasr believes, requires standing up to the disruptive technology, and, as Feenberg expects, is quite democratic and popular. In other words, showing no passivity in the face of the disruptive technologies, and actively boycotting them is a sensible and effective deed which provides a better future for mankind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate knowledge and correct analysis of the thoughts and opinions of Islamic sages are dependent on identifying the contexts and factors of the emergence of thoughts and their effectiveness from the wisdom of their predecessors. Anthropology is one of the wisdom heritages of ancient Iran, whose essence can be seen in the opinions of Muslim sages and their philosophy (Masha philosophy, Ishraq philosophy, and philosophy of Sadra). Therefore, the philosophical analysis of good and evil in the field of anthropology is based on the meaning of good and evil in the wisdom of ancient Iran, which was very important in order to confirm the truth of this statement. In the present study, the authors analyze and apply the philosophical foundations derived from good. There is evil in Iranian wisdom with Islamic wisdom. The result is proof of the existence of common philosophical points in the historical application of Iranian, Ishraqi, and Sadrai ruling bases. Commonalities include the commonality of the concept of good and evil (light and darkness), the existence of human agency and his free will in finding good and evil, and the fact that angels are examples of good and demons are examples of evil. This is complete proof of the historical course of the thought of good and evil in terms of ontology and epistemology from Iranian wisdom to Sad [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The difference in researchers’ attitudes towards human nature is not only the background and foundation of describing and explaining personality traits but also a platform for identifying and introducing new emotional states in humans. The purpose of this study is to identify the features of anthropology from Allameh Tabatabai’s point of view on the emergence of fear of God. The research method is qualitative. The qualitative analysis of the content of religious texts with a focus on description, explanation, and analysis has been used. The findings of the research showed that fear of God is a normal issue. In addition, fear of God has two types, fear in balance with hope and fear of divine position. Moreover, the phenomenon of fear of God is based on four characteristics in humans: 1) purposefulness, 2) the existential characteristics of man, 3) man with the motivation to avoid harm, and 4) the levels of man's knowledge of monotheism. The results showed that the origin of fear of God is not only external natural factors (such as lightning); rather, it is dependent on some characteristics of the disabled nature of the human being, the principle of orientation, and the lack of independence of an individual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

bstract This article examined the emergence of the human subject as the central focus of modern thought, tracing its origins from the Renaissance period through the Enlightenment. Using a descriptive-analytical approach, it explored the philosophical foundations of Orientalism and the underlying principles it shared with modernity. The analysis revealed that the rise of the human subject in the modern era was accompanied by a shift in perspective. PreRenaissance religion and culture were approached with an "objective understanding" by the modern subject. This same subject then went on to apply an "Orientalist understanding" when engaging with non-Western cultures and belief systems. The nature of Orientalism could be located in this novel relationship between the subject and the object of knowledge. The "objective understanding" embodied the Kantian epistemology, wherein the subject, relying solely on its own prior information and independent of any external or divine referent, did not recognize anything beyond itself. By subsuming objects within its own framework, the subject imposed its own understanding upon them. This process of objectification and imposition characterized the Orientalist worldview, which emerged as a core feature of modern thought. The article thus elucidated the deep historical linkages between the ascendance of the autonomous human subject, the principles of modernity, and the rise of Orientalist modes of understanding non-Western cultures and belief system [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term Ebda (innovation) as one of God’s attributes has attracted the attention of a group of philosophers, theologians, and Quranic commentators, while others have shown less interest in it. Among the Quranic commentators, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Allameh Tabatabai have given special attention to the term Ebda, considering it one of God’s actual attributes and deeming its application to contingent beings incorrect. They identify creation, lack of precedent, timelessness, placelessness, and instantaneous realization as components of Ebda. They do not view Ebda as merely a term and provide rational and narrative reasons to prove its instantaneous nature. Allameh and Fakhr Razi differ in their views on the distinction between Ebda and creation (Khalg), Ebda and origination (Ijad), and Ebda and invention (Ekhtera). The main objective of this research is to uncover Fakhr Razi and Allameh’s perspectives on the term Ebda and their differences and similarities. The aim of this study is to compare their views on the term Ebda and to pave the way for organizing Imami and Ashari terminology based on conceptual relationships, facilitating transfer and education, simplifying translation, indexing, and categorizing God’s attributes. This study adopts a descriptive-analytical method and a library-based approach. In this method, the term Ebda is explained, its similarities and differences with other terms are examined, and its components are stated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different dimensions and aspects have been stated for religion. One of these aspects is the ritual aspect of religion. It refers to a notion in which a religious person is obliged to perform certain rituals and acts of worship. But on what basis is this aspect of religion acceptable? Are there consequences for doing these actions? This study, using a descriptive-analytical method, aims to examine the basis of Kant's and Allameh Tabatabai's thinking in relation to religious worship. According to the common interpretation of Kant's views, he has placed man as the center, as required by the spirit of modernity and the humanism that governs it, and does not consider originality for religious rituals in its religious term. On the other hand, Allameh, based on the belief in God's absolute ownership, considers man as a being who is an absolute servant in front of God's creative and legislative will and has no choice but to be a servant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life in this world has always had limitations that were incompatible with our human nature. Limitations in timespace, resources, ability, pleasure, other human beings, from God, society, culture, family, body, gender, and life (mortality and death), all have caused suffering. Facing such an unfavorable situation, humans in the mind field, either by inspiration and experience, have depicted or realized the life of another world, which somehow, regardless of these limitations and the scope of human will and power in it, was very vast. Such a universal life is interpreted as "paradise". This paradise can be at the beginning of the world (early golden age), at the end of history (apocalyptic paradise), a cultural-civilized ideal (Utopia) or it can be realized in the realm of the soul or inside (liberation or spiritual bliss). One of the most universal images in this field is heaven as a garden or meadow full of blessings. In this research, we try to compare images of heaven as gardens and meadows (fields) based on the description and analysis of relevant themes. Distinction, abundance, immortality and well-being, freedom, universal peace, and the close relationship between man and the holy truth are among the common themes that are counted as gardens and meadows for heaven. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of "inner guidance" refers to the continuous and stable flow of divine guidance provided by the Imam, which aims to lead individuals towards eternal happiness. However, this raises an apparent contradiction: how can humans be guided along a predetermined path by the Imam if they possess free will? Allameh Tabataba'ie's philosophical framework reconciles this tension. He posits that the Imam's inner guidance does not negate human free will, but rather serves to provide the necessary perceptual and cognitive foundations for individuals to make voluntary choices. In other words, the Imam's guidance empowers people with the knowledge and understanding required to freely pursue the path towards felicity. This explanation allows for the rational defense of human free will within the doctrine of the Imam's inner guidance. The Imam's influence is positioned as an existential and perceptual facilitation rather than a coercive force that overrides individual autonomy. This articulation helps resolve the apparent paradox between divine guidance and human free choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indians and Iranians, as the oldest Aryan groups, had a special worldview about the forces of good and evil and a special attitude toward the forces that surrounded man and influenced people's lives. Examining the religious attitude of these civilizations toward the power and ability of demons/asuras and their assistants and the influence of demons on human life is one of the important issues that we will address in this research. The main question of this research is: What different or similar attitudes did the ancient Iranians and Indians have toward the ability and performance of evil forces (whether it is possible to give importance and credit to human existence as a competitor or helper against harmful and evil beings)? The results of the present descriptive-analytical research, by analyzing important Indian and Iranian sources, showed that considering the different attitudes of Indians and Iranians toward the origin of demonic forces, there are differences in the belief in the power and ability of evil forces. In the meantime, because the Indians considered the Asuras and daevasto be of the same origin, the influence of the Indian Asuras and their control over humans was more legal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new comparative theology is a branch of contemporary Christian theology that takes a different view of the ‘religious other’ and the theology of other religions. This tendency seeks to explore, re-read, and reinterpret the categories of faith with a comparative view, and to give a deep understanding of religious faith. Comparative theology faces a variety of approaches, and this diversity itself has raised the issue of the type of approach to this theology and the adoption of an appropriate position despite the ‘religious other’. Historical, confessional, and meta-confessional approaches can be identified in this theology that differ in method and purpose. The historical approach is the study of how theological transformations are formed in the context of interfaith relations in a historical way. The confessional approach is a way of deepening or enriching the truth of faith manifested in a particular tradition. The meta-confessional approach is a way of achieving a more universal understanding of religious truth. The main objective of the present study is to introduce and analyze the diversity of approaches in the new comparative theology and to examine which approach to comparative theology is successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contrast to ‘philosophical morality’, one of the most important features and advantages of the approach of ‘revealed-narrative morality’ is that the revealed-narrative morality is the measure of practical wisdom. In this regard, the present study investigates the aspects of this issue using an analytical-documentary method. The revealed-narrative morality school has presented its standards and scales in two formats: ethical teachings and innocent leaders. In a broad view, the school of philosophical morality is aligned with the scales and standards of revealed morality in general, and the view of those who have gone to excesses or extremes in this field is unacceptable. In particular, some issues raised in philosophical ethics are far from the scales of revealed morality, and for this reason, they are not considered in Islamic practical wisdom. Some examples are the manners of drinking wine, considering slaves as second-rate people, viewing women as viewed in the moral system of Plato and Aristotle, the theory of sharing properties with children, and the theory of assigning moral virtue to the prosperous classes of the society. Although they are discussed in the Greek version of practical wisdom, due to the non-compliance with the scales of narrative morality, they are overlooked and not followed in Islamic practical wisdom. It should also be noted that the ‘balancing ratio’ which is established between revealed-based narrative morality and the school of philosophical morality, and also the alignment of revelation and reason in ethics, have been very effective in forming the two approaches of philosophical and narrative ethics into a unified ethical approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The description of the quality of creating and developing the material world tends to be based on a priori theories rather than a posteriori equations because it is impossible to describe cosmic phenomena by a priori experiences; therefore, to outline a comprehensive model, its geometry is first founded on a priori model, derived from ontological and epistemological basics, while it is then explained by a posteriori equations. This study used Sadrai’s works using an analytical-descriptive method to answer this research question: How is the quality of creating and developing the material world? It was concluded that the material world was created by a prima materia, which is an existential concept from an analytical viewpoint while being physical for all elements from an essence viewpoint, as it is created in an evolutionary form, with the nature of the truth being a detailed existence. An evolutionary prima materia goes through various states. They are formed due to their intrinsic movements, manifest a form of themselves and become a type of secondary matter based on time incidence, with each type combined together for their intrinsic movements, thus manifesting combined physical forms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of the present research is to examine and criticize the Theory of Two Originalities. This topic is fundamental, yet it has received less attention. According to famous philosophers, originality means having objectivity, exteriority, being the source of works, and forming the reality of the text. Therefore, those who claim that existence and essence have an external reality, believe in the theory of two originalities. The neglect of this theory has led some of its major supporters to introduce the Theory of Two Originalities under different names such as the originality of essence or the originality of existence, and various interpretations have been made based on the relationship between the existences and essences. In this study, three interpretations of the two originalities are presented: Rajab Ali Tabrizi considers existence as an external affair, but regards it as secondary to essence; Ahmad Ahwazi believes that existence and essence have an external combinatory unity; and Gholamreza Fayyazi believes that existence is realized in essence, and essence is considered as the existence's attribute in the exterior, and there is no external difference between them. After presenting these three interpretations, the arguments of the supporters of the theory of two originalities are examined and criticized, and finally, the most important criticisms of the supporters of the originality of existence are interpreted and evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One characteristic of the modern age is the attempt to separate religion from the secular world, confining it to a specific aspect of life and replacing it with a new form of spirituality. This study compared the viewpoints of Muhammad Reza Hakimi and Wayne Dyer regarding the principles of spiritual life. These principles were categorized into three branches: spiritual insight, spiritual affection, and spiritual method. In terms of spiritual insight, Hakimi and Dyer had differing beliefs about God, guidance, and justice. Dyer's monotheistic system was minimalistic, while Hakimi's system was more comprehensive. However, they shared similarities in their spiritual affection although their approaches to loving God, people, and nature differed. Furthermore, their spiritual methods and practices in worship, mystical journeys, and acquiring virtues varied. Conventional forms of worship were replaced with daily meditation in Dyer's approach, whereas Hakimi emphasized individual and social divine spirituality. Dyer advocated for individual and anti-religion spirituality, while Hakimi proposed individual and social divine spirituality. Hakimi's works primarily focused on content, whereas Dyer's works were more practical and functional in nature. The methodology employed in this study was discourse analysis based on Van Dijk's theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Suhrawardi posits that genuine wisdom remains constant across time and space, referring to it as ‘Khaleda wisdom’ or ‘eternal wisdom’. In accordance with this belief, he draws upon ancient rituals and wisdom, such as the ritual of love. This study re-examines the influence of the ritual of love on Suhrawardi's philosophies, focusing on the role of love within his ontological system. It explores the concept of creation through the lenses of love and violence, illuminating the significance of Khaleda's wisdom. Suhrawardi's inclination towards Khaleda's wisdom led him to incorporate notions such as love, Horakhsh, and Khare Kiani into his philosophy. He argues that the pure truth has been revealed with diverse interpretations among various ethnicities and nations. Suhrawardi perceives himself as the intellectual heir of sages hailing from Iran, Greece, ancient Egypt, and other cultures. With the guidance of Islamic teachings, he endeavors to communicate the historical, unified truth that has been subject to myriad interpretations throughout the ages, contextualizing it within the framework of his era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Islamic philosophy the soul is almost introduced as the base of existential Structure of human being and on the contrary, the body and its role is noteworthy less. Actually the knowledge of soul in most of ontological dimensions is related to knowledge of body and its place in psychological discussions. In this article we have studied five problems about soul in Mulla Sadra’s philosophy. Therefor in this paper, five issues of soul are mentioned and the role of the body is mentioned in understanding and analyzing these issues. These issues include: the rejection of metempsychosis of the soul, the proof of the union of the soul and the body, proving the plurality of the faculties of the soul, explaining the knowledge and perception of the soul, and ultimately proving the immortality of the soul. According to the five titles mentioned above, this article seeks to answer these five questions: 1- How does Mulla Sadra benefit from the physical issues of body in rejecting metempsychosis? 2- How the Physical features in his philosophy have enabled Mulla Sadra to defend the unity of the soul and body? 3- How does Mulla Sadra prove the plurality of the body with the help of the features of body? 4- What is the body in Mulla Sadra’s Philosophy in explaining the process of knowledge and perception? 5- How does Mulla Sadra hire his body and its attributes in the proof of immortality? In response to these questions, there are reasons and arguments those are based on prefaces which are straightly depend on body and its characteristics. Some of these prefaces are: the harmony between potential and actual in soul and potential and actual in body, levels of body and its place in evolutionary substantial movement of soul, alteration, weakness or decline of some physical forces in special moments of mundane life, the importance of senses and physical perceptions in order to develop rational cognitions, being some existential levels of human free from physical feature. By this point of view, the body and its characteristics have an important ontological role. 1- The body always moves through the substantial movement from potential to actual during its lifetime and in order to the unity of the soul and body, the soul also make its potential actual with the body. Returning from action to potential is impossible, so The soul can’t be transmitted physically after actuality, which is empty of it. The body also has other features that Mulla Sadra can with the help of them, reject metempsychosis of the soul Including that: the body must always be under the control of one soul and You can never imagine a body which is empty of the soul Because the consistency of body's reality depends on soul companionship. In addition, the body can’t have two or more soul at the same time and with a self-determination anyone will find it. 2- Mulla Sadra believes that the existence is a one thing with different levels which are connected to each other and between its levels, there is no detachment. Therefor if an existence is developed on the basis of substantial movement Can within itself have the lowest levels of materiality to the highest degrees of immateriality. The human soul, after its being substantial Perfection in the immortality becomes one which is the highest level of it is intellect and the lowest level of that is material body. He also introduces the body as the emergence of the soul and its perfection. Accordingly, we can consider the body as the highest level and the soul as the lower level of the soul. In this way, the we can reject the duality of the soul and body and confirmed by the unity of the two. 3- Mulla Sadra, while believing in the union of the soul with Perceptual and provocative faculties, identifies them as various Dignities of soul and Considers the plurality of the faculties as a difference in the levels of soul. From his point of view, observing the physical faculties shows that Some physical faculties are available at the time, and at other time some are not exist. This is while some other physical faculties are available all the time. The permanent existence of some of the faculties during the life and their absence at another time, is a suitable criterion for proving plurality. 4- The formation of the faculties of the soul begins from the material body. The sensory and physical faculties are the beginning of the emergence of other faculties. Therefore, the distinction between non-physical perceptions of sensory perceptions is through taking physical properties away. The perfection of soul is initially through sensory perceptions and physical matter. The body is the origin of sensory, imaginary, and rational perceptions and The plurality and variety of perceptions relate to physical instruments. The rational perceptions also come with the help of senses and partial perceptions. Of course, this point must also be emphasized that after achieving immateriality of the soul, sensory and physical faculties plays a dominant and deterrent role in rational perceptions. 5- Mulla Sadra uses a method of taking physical properties away to prove Immortality of soul. He shows that the soul does not only have some physical states like Weakness in sleep or fatigue due to intellectual activity, but also the body is more powerful in these cases. Taking these physical characteristics away from the perceptive faculty Reveals that the soul is immaterial. This leads us to the proof of the survival of the Immortality of soul after the death of body. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ghazali and Mulla Sadra are among the thinkers who have sought to understand the causes of death and have addressed this issue in their own philosophical discussions about the reality of the soul. Although they have different foundations in their views about soul, they give more or less similar ideas about the cause of human death. Some experts in this field believe that natural death is due to severe weakness of the body and malfunction of vital organs and the breakdown of its forces, but Mulla Sadra and Ghazali see the cause of death as a development and enforcement of the soul, not defect and destruction of the body. An important question to which the present paper tries to find its answer is that which of the above-mentioned theory is more consistent with the foundations accepted by these two philosophers, and can this theory be based on either of them? First, the anthropological viewpoints of each of them are explained, and then through analyzing, this will be investigated that which principles and foundations have succeeded in presenting his theory of the cause of death and has the ability to justify his theory. There are several bases and principles in Ghazali and Mulla Sadra's philosoph views regarding soul, which play a central role in the cause of death, and it is important to pay attention to the similarities and differences between the two thinkers. The first is the view of each about the "nature and reality of the soul." From Ghazzali's point of view, the soul is an immaterial, rational substance, and Mulla Sadra accepts this, but equalizes it to one of the powers of the soul, which is known a rational power. So he doesn’t equalize it with all the nature and soul. This is because, in his opinion, soul is a substance which in some of its levels is material and some others od immaterial and only at the level of reason, it is an immaterial, rational substance. Another important principle is about the way in which the soul is created, according to the point of view of Ghazali, the soul from the beginning of the universe, was an immaterial being; (Rohaniyat al-Huduth). But in Mulla Sadra’s viewpoint, the soul at the beginning was a physical reality that gradually moves toward immaterial thing. This is the case of Sadra's fundamental differences with Ghazali and with all the previous philosophers. The next pivotal difference is the occurrence of movement and evolution in the essence of the soul. In the philosophical discussions of Ghazali, he talks about stages of human evolution, and it is understood that he has in some way considered the intrinsic motion of the soul. Mulla Sadra also explicitly stated the gradual movement of man in a natural way, and explicitly called it the intrinsic motion of the soul. Thus, Ghazali and Mulla Sadra explain the uplift of the soul by its intrinsic motion, but this movement is consistent with the foundations of Sadra, not with Ghazali's basics. Sadra is helping to explain this from principles such as the trans-substantial motion, and that it has different levels and stages and that it has temporal contingency, but Ghazali is not equipped with such principles, and this leads him to fail to explain his theory. For this reason he claims that the soul can have intrinsic motion only if it is material and physical at the time of its creation not immaterial, because there is no movement in immaterial beings The relationship between the soul and the body is the next major principle, and Sadra believes in this regard that, contrary to the general impression that the soul is derived from the body, it is the soul that makes the body existent and, in fact, the body is one of the outcomes of the existence of the soul, not the opposite. Ghazali also has a similar view and believes that this is a soul that is useful and grants the existence to the body, so essentially the soul is the principal and the body is its function. With the explanation that Ghazali and Mulla Sadra have shown from the relationship between the soul and body, it can be concluded that the origin of the separation of the soul from the body is not the end of the strength of the body and the extinction of instinctive heat and temperament, but the promotion and independence of the soul is the origin of this separation, and this promotion and independence is the result of the inherent movement of the soul. After expressing the philosophical principles of Ghazali and Mulla Sadra in explaining the sould, one can explain the cause and quality of the occurrence of death from their points of view. The exploration in the works of al-Ghazali, shows that, although death is due to the shutting down of natural and animal powers, but what causes these powers to be shut down is the soul’s rejection to observe the body, the rejection is not the result of degeneration of Mizaj, but due to gradual evolution and perfection of reason, rational power and the huma n soul. Sadra also believes that the cause of the death is in the innate evolution of life and the upgrading of the existential level of man. By saying that the human soul has a steady and evolutional movement in its own substance and every movement has its ultimate goal, and each goal has an owner which will stop moving when it reaches its very end. The soul is moving towards its ultimate goal of acquiring power and talents - during the worldly life - and death occurs when all its talents are activated and no longer capable of acquiring any other power and talent in this life. The result is that al-Ghazali's theory of the cause of death is similar to Mulla Sadra's theory in this regard, but compared to Mulla Sadra's theory, the theory of al-Ghazal differs in some bases as the following: One of Ghazali's important reasons in explaining the cause of death is that death is the result of the inherent motion of the soul and due to its upgrade. One of the main sources of Mulla Sadra's explanation for the cause of death is the intrinsic motion of the soul, and he believes that death is due to the uplift of the soul, which is the result of the innate motion of the soul. But the very basis that Ghazali makes in choosing such an explanation for death is the belief in the spiritual nature of the soul; that is, the combination of the inherent motion of the soul with its spiritual form, which is acceptable to Ghazzali, is impossible because Moving from the power to the action is possible only in material matter. In order to be able to move in the essence of the soul, we must believe in its materiality at the beginning of its conception, that is to say, we must consider the soul as the physical aspect of its creation, and this is the same as the accepted principle by Sadra. Consequently, death as the result of self-awareness is compatible only with the principles of Mulla Sadra, and there is an inconsistency between Ghazali's opinion on the cause of his death and his principles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study explains the causes of the intellectual changes of Ahl-e Haqq from its beginning to the present era using a descriptive-analytical method and a review of its main texts. The Yarsanians (Ahl-e Haqq) have linked the origin of their religion to the era of Imam Ali (AS) based on the manifestation of God's nature and attributes. At the beginning of its formation, this religion had a thought similar to Kisanian. Belief in three infallible imams was one of the religious features of this religion in the early centuries. In the 11th century, due to intellectual developments, the Yarsanians were inclined towards the Imamiyyah approach and the thinking of Sufis and mystics. This study answered the question that, according to the texts of Ahl-e Haqq, what the intellectual and religious developments of Ahl-e Haqq are. The findings of this research show that the period of innate emergence and the formation of families played a role in the evolution of this religion. In the era of Sultan Ishaq, the arrogance about the religious authorities intensified compared to the previous periods, and from the 11th century onwards, the intensity of the arrogance about the leaders of this religion decreased a little. Examining the attitude of Ahl-e Haqq in different periods is another goal of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research aims to answer the question of how the hermeneutics of Eric Hirsch's objectivism can be criticized and evaluated based on the criteria of the author in Allameh Tabatabai's interpretive theory. A descriptive-analytical investigation of the hermeneutic view of Eric Hirsch’s objectivism shows that Hirsch, with his belief in the meaning and purpose of the author, and paying special attention to the stability of meaning and preventing the interference of the interpreter’s mental world in understanding the meaning of the work, stands against interpretive subjectivism and its consequences such as pluralism and relativism. He presents the approach to the author based on criteria such as emphasis on the author, the ability to determine the meaning, and the distinction between the meaning of the text and the reaction of the interpreter. The criticism and evaluation of his view in the interpretive theory of Allameh Tabataba'i indicates that although Hersch uses these criteria in his approach to the author in order to preserve the role and meaning of the author, he calls for a quantitative and qualitative expansion of the understanding of the text and the work without limitations. However, his author-centered point of view leads to limitations in understanding the text, wrong perceptions mixed with deviations in interpretation, or the loss of the author's intention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Qorb (Closeness or Proximity) in the Sufi dictionary is a mystical state and means obedience that brings the obeyer close to the obeyed. The authors of this study intend to investigate the opinions of Ibn Arabi and Izz al-Din Kashani about mystical closeness, the type of perception, innovation, and commonalities and differences of these two Sufi thinkers using a descriptive-analytical method based on library documents. Based on the results of the research, they consider Qorb-e Nawafel (recommendation) to be superior to Qorb-e Farayez (obligation) and link the reason of superiority to divine love. True Qorb in the view of the two is not reaching God and observing him; rather, in Kashani's opinion, this type of closeness is connected to a special passion, in ascending levels, which is continuous and permanent. In Ibn Arabi's view, mystics are constantly observing proximity, and this observation is nothing but the manifestation of God. Both of them believe that God-given knowledge is special for close people. It is one of the requirements to reach real closeness. Both believe that God-given knowledge is reserved for mystics who are close to God. By linking mystical closeness to the two categories of ‘spiritual gathering’ and ‘internal dispersion’, Kashani believes that in complete closeness, the seeker's soul in the place of gathering, despite the attribute of humility in its servitude, also has the attribute of perfection and ascension to high levels. However, by distinguishing this type of interpretation, Ibn Arabi believes that some great Sufis, because of their belief in closeness in the position of spiritual gathering and distance in the position of separation, have included the knowledge of distance in the matter of closeness. Kashani calls the manifestation in the non-material as distant manifestation, and the manifestation in material as close manifestation. Both thinkers believe that getting close to God depends on research and science in the position of servitude or worship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the connection between soul and body is one of the complex issues in psychology. Psychologists emphasize the two-way connection between the soul and the body. In this research, an attempt has been made to analyze three types of links between the two in the Holy Quran: 1) the effect of the mental state on the physical state (spiritual-physical), 2) the effect of the physical state on the mental state (physicalspiritual), and 3) the effect of the mental state on another mental state (spiritual-spiritual). The verses indicating the connection between cognition and tears, the effect of sin on the face and appearance, hearing the divine verses and the trembling of the skin, and the relationship between the piety of the heart and lowering the voice, are among the signs of spiritual-physical connection. And the verses that emphasize the connection between crime and hardness of heart, and sin and rust of the heart, are a sign of physical-spiritual connection. The verses that express the connection between divine mercy and the softness of the heart, thoughtfulness, and the opening of the locks of the heart, refer to the spiritual-spiritual connection. The philosophical basis of these three types of mutual influence between the mental and physical states should be sought in the two theories of the soul’s ‘Spiritual temporarily and endurance’ and its ‘Physical temporarily and endurance’. In the present study, using the method of rational analysis, the verses related to each of the three types of links have been re-examined and their psychological foundations have been explained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study tries to examine the Sermon on Mount Q, the first written book of the New Testament, and its influence on the Epistle of James. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the authors conclude that according to the Sermon on Mount Q and the Epistle of James, Jesus makes a cultural revolution in the society as a social reformer, who sees the path of social transformation in individual reform, change of cultural values, and the reversal of identities, and James as a follower of his reform has such a concern. In addition, both identities are socially representative of realist thinking on the one hand because they considered useless fighting against a powerful Roman empire as the Zealots failed. On the other hand, they are considered the representative of idealistic thinking because they sought to build an ideal society by presenting trans-ethical rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apostasy is a topic in Islamic jurisprudence that has been subject to criticism and attacks on Islam, particularly when it pertains to women. The Imamiyyah religion and the Salafiyyah approach are two contemporary discourses that have significant influence and share many commonalities, but also have differences regarding women's apostasy. This comparative analysis aimed to provide an accurate understanding of women's apostasy in these two discourses and shed light on their conflicting aspects. The research employed a comparative analytical documentary method to address the conflicting aspects of the two discourses regarding the positive consequences of rulings on women's apostasy. The study concluded thatApostasy is a topic in Islamic jurisprudence that has been subject to criticism and attacks on Islam, particularly when it pertains to women. The Imamiyyah religion and the Salafiyyah approach are two contemporary discourses that have significant influence and share many commonalities, but also have differences regarding women's apostasy. This comparative analysis aimed to provide an accurate understanding of women's apostasy in these two discourses and shed light on their conflicting aspects. The research employed a comparative analytical documentary method to address the conflicting aspects of the two discourses regarding the positive consequences of rulings on women's apostasy. The study concluded that Imamiyyah distinguished between natural and national apostasies and considers gender as a fundamental concept. In its rulings on apostasy, Imamiyyah provided more lenient and liberated conditions for apostate women compared to the Salafists. Imamiyyah distinguished between natural and national apostasies and considers gender as a fundamental concept. In its rulings on apostasy, Imamiyyah provided more lenient and liberated conditions for apostate women compared to the Salafists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims at comparing the unity of existence and the unity of intuitions in Khajeh Abdollah Ansari’s codes of conduct and Ghiasuddin Mansour Dashtaki’s philosophical and mystical works. The study is a qualitative basic research using the descriptive-analytical method. Khajeh’s views regarding these issues are not attainable directly from his works and can only be deduced from his words about mystical positions, but Dashtaki’s views have been expressed through deep mystical comments. Khajeh Abdollah describes the unity of existence in the position of oneness and the unity of intuitions in the position of mortality, poverty, loneliness, monotheism and similitude in the form of examples. Dashtaki, however, has a comprehensive view of these issues and has clearly explained them. He has interpreted the unity of existence as the unity of intuitions and considered the unity of intuitions as unity with truth in such a way that he also recognized many existences and considers them as the shadow of true existence (i.e. God). Of course, Dashtaki could not differentiate well between the unity of existence and the unity of intuition. These two views are different in terms of perspective, but they do not differ much in terms of fundamental concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compares Ahmad Ghazali and Jean-Luc Marion's thoughts about love using a descriptive-analytical method. Despite the differences between these two thinkers in terms of thought and time, the content of their thoughts is similar in some ways. In writing Savaneh al-Oshshaq, Ghazali uses the method of esoteric commentary to discover the mysteries of Sufi, and Marion uses Heidegger's phenomenology to explain the hidden angles of the love phenomenon. According to the fact that orientalists like Henry Corbin consider the method of phenomenology in the occident tradition to be in line with the esoteric commentary (Revelation of the Veiled or Kashf al-Mahjoub of Muslim mystics), the comparison of Marion's phenomenological approach and Ghazali's interpretation seems logical in a way. These two thinkers talk about the univocality of the concept of love and do not divide love into metaphorical and real aspects. Therefore, Ghazali and Marion consider love to have the same meaning, whether in human relationships or in connection with God. Marion's main goal is to refute the metaphysical dominance over theology and negate the conceptual and like idol attitude about God, and Ghazali interprets the lived experience of mystics, crosses the narrow fence of philosophical concepts, and uses the language of allegory and mystification to explain love. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Concept of the Intellect (xrad) in Middle Persian literature is portrayed at various existential levels. Sometimes it is seen as an acquirable intelligence, which does not transcend the individual state; sometimes it is described as an essential and primal intellect that intuitively perceives the truths, and sometimes the highest level of the intellect is in view, i.e. Ohrmazd’s omniscient intellect. Dādistān-ī Mēnōg-ī Xrad (The Tribunal of the Divine Archetype of the Intellect), a work with a primarily metaphysical tone, emphasizes the āsn-xrad, or the inner primal intellect, and its divine archetype (mēnōg ī āsn-xrad, abridged as mēnōg ī xrad) in particular, and discusses the role of this archetypal intellect in relation to Ohrmazd, as well as to the spiritual and corporeal worlds. In the present study, we examine the concept of divine intelligence from an Islamic metaphysical perspective, explore the text to identify the divine archetype of the intellect, and establish a correlation between the concepts of Mēnōg-ī-xrad and Spǝnta-mainyu of the Gathas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reviewing the efforts of Christian theologians to expand religious spirituality, the present study focuses on spiritual theology and examines the criticisms and related challenges. The method of the research is historical. Firstly, it examines the history of spiritual theology from mystical theology and ascetic theology to a new discipline. Then, it deals with its relationship with other theological branches, and finally, it examines the current state of this type of study and explains its challenges. The most important challenges found through this study are individualism, personalization of religion, and lack of defined connection with systematic theology and practical theology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unity of existence, arrangement of levels of existence, and perfect man are the significant mystical subjects that have been consistently considered by thinkers and scholars of Islamic mystical tradition. Taking an analytical-descriptive method, the present study aims to draw the ontology of Ibn Arabi and Aziz Nasafi, the two mystics of the first and second traditions, with respect to the creation of the world and its levels and also to present a consistent model based on fundamentals and structures of their thought, the extent Aziz Nasafi have been influenced by Ibn Arabi and his original theories. Explanation and analysis of Aziz Nasafi’s views about existence reveal that he should be regarded among mystics of the second tradition, albeit with his familiarity with the fundamentals of the first tradition. Aziz Nasafi’s ontological views are informed by those of Ibn Arabi and his followers, yet since Nasafi displays originality in mystical subjects, he has likewise novelty in ontological views. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the sacred books of Abrahamic religions, namely the Testaments and the Qur'an, central features are attributed to God. These features make God identifiable to the audience and create an image of Him in the mind. Each of these holy books has attributed characteristics to the God of their religion that has commonalities and differences with other religions. These characteristics permeate all aspects of religion; therefore, they are considered very important and fundamental and shape the atmosphere of any religion. Normally, one attribute of God is of central importance in every religion among other attributes, and any other attribute is considered a compliment or a ray of it. In this study, an attempt is made to obtain the central characteristics of God in the three religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam through the verses of the Testaments and the Qur'an. Knowing these central features helps us to better understand the specific path of each religion toward its supreme destination and facilitates the dialogue between their followers. The three characteristics of spirit, word, and light are of fundamental importance in these three religions, but each of these three plays a central role in each religion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epistemology is a science that discusses human knowledge, including its nature, possibility, ways, types, territory, etc. of knowledge. It is a field that philosophers, theologians, and religious scholars have taken more effective steps in deepening and developing it. Jewish thinkers have also paid special attention to this issue. Sadia bin yusuf al-fayoumi, nicknamed Sadia Gaon, the father of Jewish philosophy and the head of the Rabbinical religious school "Sura", is considered one of the most important theologians in the history of the tradition of Rabbinical Judaism. He is known as the first Jewish philosopher and exegete in the middle centuries due to his innovative and systematic ideas. He is the first person who, in addition to his detailed views on theology and cosmology, has also raised important opinions on epistemology in two works ‘Kitab Al-Amanat Wa'l-'tiqadat (the Book of Beliefs and Opinions)’ and ‘Tafsir Sefer Yetsira (Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira)’. The two works suggest two different structures of epistemology. Sadia points out that the human mind is able to explain reality in two ways: one is based on empirical rationalism and the other is based on divine illumination and self-revelation in the mind. In other words, the human mind can act in two modes like the act of dialogue (i.e. arguing and reasoning or being silent, meditating, listening, and seeing). Considering the unique role of knowledge arising from reflection and revelation, in reaching the complete truth, Sadia plans and examines it from various angles in his important works. Along with Al-Amanat Wa'l 'tiqadat, he makes a detailed discussion in the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira about epistemology. Its study helps a lot to understand his thought. Sadia's thinking in religions and beliefs has a controversial nature. In the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, he has relatively deep and esoteric thinking. This study, using the analytical comparative method, investigates the topics related to epistemology raised in the two mentioned works of Sadia. In his works, knowledge has different meanings: in Al-Amanat Wa'l- 'tiqadat, it is shown as the correspondence between external reality and its concept in the human mind, while in Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, knowledge is related to the origin and nature of creation. In ‘the Book of Beliefs and Opinions’, Sadia, in a positive answer regarding the possibility of acquiring knowledge, considers his goal to be certain and removes all doubts. In this book, while proving the same validity of knowledge and results that can be achieved through revelation and rational reasoning, he cites verses from the Bible to prove the foundations of his epistemological teachings. He considers the factor of knowledge to be the intellectual power of the soul, which only God has rightly placed in the person's existence. Despite the fact that the cognitive process relies on sensory perception, the intellect includes a system of principles and generalities that exist independently of sensory data. The Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira considers the goal of the author of the book to be the representation (portrait) of how things come into being and find their existence so that the knower can understand them and the wise beings can learn them. Therefore, while confirming the possibility of acquiring knowledge, this work emphasizes the role of revelation in this connection. Al-Amanat Wa'l-'tiqadat presents the elements of the ‘cognition process’ in the form of a hierarchical model in three steps: 1) a complex and vague idea that is only a vague and confused idea of the nature of the research subject, 2) an analysis of this idea, and 3) accepting the ultimate truth by a belief freed from doubts. Here we witness a process of gradual internalization of knowledge that occurs in the mind, a process during which sensory perception turns into belief. In this process, reason gradually removes the factors that cause doubt and error, and then reaches the understanding of the truth by refining and classifying the mixed information of the external world. This is Saadia's model to reach the correct belief. The Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira does not include regular epistemological statements that describe the process of cognition in detail. But it associates three necessary factors (knowing, thinking, and believing) with the three corresponding faculties of the soul. He attributes knowledge to the power of collecting data (al-Qowwah al-Hashira) of the soul, which collects the discussed data and transmits them to the second power. The second power is the ‘discernment power’ (al-Qowwah al-Momaizah), which recognizes true and false data and verifies the facts by rejecting false data. Then, this power transfers the refined information to ‘Al-Qowwah al-Mu’taqidah’ which preserves it and becomes sure of its authenticity. In the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, along with the three general sources of knowledge, mentioned in Al-Amanat Wa'l-'tiqadat, the knowledge of ‘lightning-like’ (Kal-barq), i.e. illumination, plays a prominent role. In complete contrast to his negative assessment of lightning-like knowledge in Al-Amanat, in the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, he states that the principles of things appear in the mind like lightning, then they become clear and certain before his eyes. Of course, this duality goes back to different approaches of Sadia's epistemology in these two works as well as the related fields. In Al-Amanat, the knowledge of ‘lightning-like’ refers to sensible reality per se. But in Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, knowledge has the nature of representation. That is, the mind relies on itself in the complete absence of sensory data. Therefore, it seems that illumination is the only way to understand this ‘other reality’. In al-Amanat and beliefs, knowledge means the correspondence of external reality and its meaning in the human mind, while in the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, it is related to the ultimate roots of creation, without considering sensory perception. Wisdom is one of the most controversial epistemological words of Sadia. Saadia's definition of wisdom is based on various biblical passages, and thus it can be seen as the result of Saadia's exegetical activities rather than independent philosophical reflection. In Al-Amanat, al-Hikmat is defined as “kawn al-ashyaʾ ʿala ḥaqaʾiqiha al-maʿluma wa-laysa-l-ḥikma an takun al-ashyaʾ ʿala tamanni mutamanin wa-la shahwa mushtahin” and the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira defines it as “al-ḥikma hiya tartib al-ashyaʾ maratibaha wa-taqdiruha maqadiraha”. In short, according to Sadia, it should be said that reality speaks in two languages. In other words, the human mind is able to understand and express reality in two ways: one is universal and unanimous, and ultimately based on sensory and intellectual perception, and the other is based on God's self-revelation through human intuition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The philosophical analysis of universals needs to clarify two terms: the world and the mind. If we can understand the relation between these two, it is possible to answer two questions. First, what are universals? And second, how to make universals? The present research aims to compare universals from the viewpoint of Shahab Al-Din Suhrawardi (1154-1191 CE) and Duns Scotus (1266-1308 CE). Both of them follow the Greek legacy and are under Abrahamic religions. They distinguish between common and special features of the world when they describe it. In Islamic philosophy, these features are called "existence" and "quiddity". But Suhrawardi, by the revival of the system of light, recognizes them as the "light" or the "being". He distinguishes between existence (Wojoud) and being (Maujoud). This distinction is linguistic and ontological. Existence is always in the mind while the being is found in the world outside of the mind. He believes that the specific feature of the world is shown by the beings (Maujoudat). But Suhrawardi does not search for the common feature in existence. He explains that feature by the light (Nour) and the layout of the system patterned by the lights (Anwar). This cosmos system includes the longitudinal and widthways orders. The results of the two orders are two versions of universals. The first version (it could be named the Aristotelian version) belongs to the longitudinal dimension. This version is presented by mind functions. Suhrawardi is among a few Muslim Philosophers that highlights the mind’s function. He believes that the mind has an active and a passive role. The passive one is only a place for perceptions and memories, but its activeness or agency is introduced by the intellect-mind relation. The intellect-act (ontological and epistemological) relation is limited by the mind. Suhrawardi discusses platonic ideas in a widthways order. It results from the second version. But it is important to mention that Suhrawardi’s reading is a wider view of the universals. Suhrawardi’s reading of platonic ideas explains upward and downward lights. The upward light is the result of illumination (Ishraq) and the downward light is the result of observation (Mushahadah). The upward one expresses the Aristotelian universals, and the downward one shows the platonic version. On the other hand, in the medieval period, the term “common nature” express a major problem of universals. This term originates from the Natural Universals of Avicena. The Avicenian concept was so ambiguous, i.e, what he describes is not in the world nor the mind. So, medieval philosophers and commentators had a problem with Avicenna’s quote. The problem was how to interpret universals. Avicenna confirms that the term universal is neither in the world nor in the mind, that is, it has no necessity. Scotus confronts such a strange ontological state. He doesn’t make the Natural Universal in the mind or in the world; rather, he tries to go out of it from its contradictional state. At first, Scotus rejects the theories that consider universals only in the mind and only in the world. He stands in the middle of these two. With two ideas, the common nature goes out from its pureness: non-numerical identity and commonness. The first refers to the idea that everything that has a real identity hasn’t a numerical identity. The real identity of nature exists from the pure state, and, at the same time, it is not an objective nature. But it seems to be in the mind while it is a conceptual issue. Thus, Scotus explains commonness as opposed to universality. Considering this idea, he says that commonness belongs to actual quiddity, not to quiddity in the intellect or mind. It is noticed that two interpretations be possible from the actual quiddity; the first is the objective quiddity, and the second is the quiddity Scotus has proved, i.e, the absolute quiddity that has someplace in the world, but not a sensual object. The commonness belongs to the second interpretation. The reason why the quiddity has commonness is the quiddity itself. Scotus represents the Aristotelian version of universals. He believes that human knowledge achieves experience and separation from particulars. Cognition is divided into sensual and intellectual aspects. The beginning of cognition is sensual but it results in an intellectual path. These are the general roles of the mind. But non-numerical identity and commonness are particularly mental acts. The separation of common nature’s features is by seeing the objective order. The non-numerical identity is obtained by considering the numerical identity. Also, commonness is obtained by considering the real quiddity. Concerning the above explanations, Scotus sees the particulars’ features as real or non-numerical identities and the common features as commonness. Both philosophers believe in active and passive roles of the mind. But, the reading of the mind’s activity is different. Scotus thinks like Aristotle, i.e, perceptions are just obtained from particulars. But Suhrawardi confirms that the mind makes some concepts without world interference, which means some of the universals are made only by the mind. While Scotus believes in the Aristotelian version of universals, Suhrawardi expresses both versions of the universals, although he does not make any connection between the two versions. It is to say that their ways for the explanation of universals are different, but they consider theories on the common and special features of the world. Suhrawardi expresses the light as the special feature and the quiddity (i.e, diversity of quiddity) as the common one, and Scotus proves the real identity (or non-numerical) as the special feature and the commonness (in front of pure universality) as the common one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Philosophers, especially at the beginning of the era of philosophy, have made various arguments to explain the origin of existence. Allameh Tabatabai's argument of reality is among them. In this study, Swinburne's account of the simplicity principle is analyzed. Then, the principles and concepts postulated in the argument of reality are analyzed and examined based on the facets. What seems impressive in the argument of reality is brevity. In this research, an attempt has been made to answer two research questions: 1) Is it rational to consider the simplicity criterion in assessing the truth of a theory and its probability? Also, is the argument of reality in the viewpoint of Swinburne's simplicity principle, simpler than other arguments? Swinburne positively agrees with this view. He considers simplicity to be a fundamental a priori truth, and the criterion of the probability of an explanation. ‘Simplicity’ is one of the fundamental concepts of epistemology. ‘Syntactic simplicity’ measures the number and brevity of the basic principles of a theory and its formulation, and ‘ontological simplicity’ measures the number of kinds of concepts postulated in a theory. William Ockham did not explicitly mention the principle of simplicity, but he is known for the famous term "Ockham's Razor". He does not consider the assumption of plurality without the necessity to be rational. Popper argued that a simple theory is easier to be falsified. According to Eliot Sober, simplicity is meaningful only if it is placed in a particular context. So, he proposes the principle of ‘parsimony’. According to David Lewis, the predicates and concepts that formulated a simple theory should refer to perfectly natural properties. Quine considers the tendency to prefer simple theories to be caused by ‘translogical features of human thought’ that tend the world to be simple. Swinburne argues it is an a priori ultimate epistemological principle that simplicity is evidence of truth. He considers simplicity to be the criterion of the probability of a theory and the evidence of the truth of that theory and suggests six facets in his account. Philosophically, the factors are 1) the number of concepts and principles postulated, 2) the number of kinds of concepts, 3) understanding the concepts postulated in a theory not to be entailed in understanding other concepts and principles, 4) a theory consisting of a few principles is simpler than one consisting of many principles, 5) a formulation of a theory in which principles relate to a few concepts is simpler rather than many concepts, and 6) a mathematical formulation is simpler. The principles and concepts postulated in the argument of reality are general and obvious in that their definition is literal, and they consist of the concept of eternal necessity and the concept of reality. The concept of reality takes precedence over the concept of the authenticity of existence and nature. In Allameh’s argument, from the beginning, the external reality is considered, regardless of whether that reality is an example of existence based on the authenticity of existence, or based on the authenticity of nature, it is an example of a contingent nature or a necessity nature, which does not make a difference in the completeness of the argument. Because it is enough to be clear that absolute reality exists unconditionally. This argument relies on the inviolable truth of the proposition that absolute reality necessarily exists. This brevity in the principles and concepts of the argument of reality makes it very compatible with the principle of simplicity and the facets that Swinburne enumerated in his account. According to Swinburne’s account, simplicity is a fundamental a priori truth. The Proposition "absolute reality necessarily exists" is a priori true and never accepts negation, and it always corresponds to a reality, either negatively or positively. The results of the present study show that, according to Swinburne's account, simplicity is the criterion of the probability of an explanation. In other words, if an explanation is a priori true, so the fundamental evidence for its truth is the simplicity of that explanation. Therefore, according to the correspondence theory of truth, it seems to be rational that the argument of reality is simpler and more probable than other arguments. In addition, it seems there is a correspondence in the argument of reality for each of the facets Swinburne enumerated for simplicity making it simpler than other arguments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The doctrine of monotheism is the most important doctrine that sheds light on all areas of religion, i.e. rulings, morals, and beliefs, at the head of Islamic teachings. Moreover, the importance of the doctrines of confidence and trust should also be seen under the importance and dignity of the doctrine of monotheism because the believer, with trust, considers God to be the only effective force in existence and relies on Him alone in the affairs of his life. This research tries to obtain an accurate reading of the psychological concept of self-confidence by using the descriptive-analytical method and benefiting from the techniques and tools available, after studying the doctrine of confidence from the perspective of Sadrul Matalhin. For the accurate interpretation of confidence and trust from Mullah Sadra's point of view, it is necessary to reveal how it is combined with the psychological concept of self-confidence. Although in psychology, selfconfidence is presented in a neutral and unvalued way as an important factor in mental health, with a negative perception of this concept, the sum between self-confidence and trust becomes impossible because such a person, in the chain of causes, does not give dignity to God, and without the need to trust God, sometimes he rules over existence and destiny. However, in the positive perception of the concept of self-confidence, which is close to self-esteem and self-efficacy, Mutawakkul (trustee) sees his capabilities as a tool to get rid of pests such as self-deprecation, weakness, and laziness. However, in the way of matching and summing trust and self-confidence according to Sadra's principles, self-confidence should be considered to be combined only with some levels of trust, and in others it is irrelevant. In other words, in explaining the degrees of trust, Mulla Sadra considers the lowest level of trust to be when the person who trusts in it trusts God like others. Therefore, the justified meaning can be considered for self-confidence. According to Mulla Sadra, the highest degree of trust is the moment when the person trusts in God for all causes. Mulla Sadra's conclusion is that on the one hand, many things in the world arise through mediation; on the other hand, all those means are channels of God. Even though the causes are considered to be causal, they are not given independence to become a force within the divine power. Also, in the negative perception of selfconfidence, the sum between self-confidence and trust becomes impossible. Because such a person, in the chain of causes, does not give any dignity to God and does not need to trust God. According to Mulla Sadra's view, self-confidence should be considered a low and medium level of collectable trust. At the highest level of trust, it is no longer possible in the sense of longitudinal causality, numerical causality, or any other meaning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The typology of religiosity is one of the topics that has been considered by theologians. Seyyed Heidar Amoli and Abdolkarim Soroush are among the thinkers who have made such efforts. Our purpose in the present fundamental-theoretical study is to compare their viewpoints on this issue. Seyyed Heidar enumerates three levels of ‘Sharia (the Way)’, ‘Tariqah (the Procedure)’, and ‘Haghighah (the Truth)’ for religiosity. Soroush also suggests a typical typology of religiosity that has distinctions and interferences with the mentioned divisions. The three types of religiosity are: ‘thoughtful to expediency’, ‘thoughtful to knowledge’, and ‘thoughtful to experience’. Although Seyyed Heidar and Soroush have a common policy in many religious, intellectual, and cultural characteristics, their intellectual atmosphere and time have caused their principles and approach to become different. Seyyed Heidar deals with the typology of religiosity in accordance with the traditional and mystical approach while Soroush focuses on a social approach based on the modern world. The most important result, which distinguishes these two approaches, is Soroush’s attention to epistemology as one of the components of modern thought, and Seyyed Heidar’s attention to traditional ontology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Linda Zagzebski is one of the philosophers working on the emotions and motivating dispositions of the saints. By expanding her theory of divine motivation, she tried to fill in an important gap in previous accounts about saintly life and show why thinking of the saints only as moral exemplars is insufficient. She argues that the saints’ connection to God is what makes them morally good. Zagzebski focuses rightly on the emotions of the saints and provides valuable insights into their moral psychology. In the present study, we first discuss the etymology of the word "saint" and examine its historical background in Christian culture, and then, through the explanation of Zagszebski's important theories of Exemplarism and Divine Motivation, we criticize her most important arguments about the saintly life. Although her attractive viewpoint makes some important advances toward understanding and justifying moral saintliness, it remains deficient insofar as she cannot accurately clarify the limits of imitating saints and the nature of their connection to God. Also, she neglects the role of religious institutions, communities, and spiritual disciplines in helping the saints come to share God’s motives; and she either does not give due attention to the specific virtues and gifts the saints- especially in non-Christian culturespossess. So, her account is not comprehensive enough in this regard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As religious and philosophical thought is informed by natural sciences, process theology considers ‘spirit’ and its features to be derived from nature, and, therefore, has a naturalistic interpretation of innate inclinations (fiṭrat) as a fundamental concept in the knowledge of human beings. According to this view, human nature develops against the background of evolution and takes different forms depending on the position of each individual in society. Therefore, it would be absurd to talk about fixed innate inclinations in all human beings. Process theologians see religion as human nature’s response to the quest for God. Thus, based on the axiom that human essence is evolving and dynamic, they see religion as evolving in step with man’s innate inclinations and nature. In the present study, we examine the thought of process theology about knowledge of innate inclinations and its relation with religion, and, with an emphasis on the thoughts of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli, assess and critique the theology’s viewpoint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the history of western and eastern philosophy, the discussion of science and perception has been centered on the soul, and the body has been on the sidelines. Islamic philosophers, especially Masha'is, consider science and perception to be the function of the soul and not the body. In this research, we try to analyze the views of Ibn-Sina and Maurice Merleau-Ponty's thoughts about bodily perception using an analytical-descriptive method and a comparative approach. In this regard, first Ibn-Sina's views on the principles of psychology and then the role of the body in perception are analyzed. Then, the phenomenology of perception and the role of the body in it are examined from the perspective of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Believing in the duality of soul and body, Ibn-Sina considers the soul as the basis of perception, but at the same time, he is not oblivious to the role of the body in the matter of perception. He sees the soul as a rider that uses its compound, the body, in actions and perception. On the other hand, according to Merleau-Ponty, the soul and the body are united and the body has a more prominent role in perception; in other words, the body is considered the only way to perceive existence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]