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This paper focuses on the Colleges of Advanced Technology (CATs), specialist providers of advance science and technology which existed in England and Wales for ten years after the 1956 White Paper Technical Education. Its central argument is that recasting the CATs as broader-based universities following the 1963 Robbins Report was a significant error which attenuated the progress of science and technology, and prevented the Colleges' development as viable providers of higher education (HE) outside the university sector. This decision, it is argued, was shaped by typically English views about the relative value of different forms of learning, the nature and purpose of HE, and particular beliefs about the primacy of the university. It also conflated the general desire to increase participation in higher education with the wish to promote science and technology in particular. A bolder option, it is proposed, would have been to build the CATs up as prestigious institutes of technology, along the lines of those found in the USA and continental Europe – although this, it is recognised, would have entailed a substantial shift in the role of the state and reduced the individual and collective autonomy of HE institutions in England and Wales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobility is becoming a defining feature of today's globalising society. Individuals move for a variety of reasons, including finding employment or pursuing education. This paper focuses on the interrelationship between two different types of migrants who have all moved out of one specific country to another. It builds on the perceptions of Turkish graduates of German universities who moved cross-border recently to study in German universities, the self-styled 'New Wave Turks', to understand their place within the existing Turkish diaspora there. Although the existing Turkish diaspora in Germany is well researched, as is how diasporas can facilitate further mobility, the interaction between these newcomers and the existing Turkish diaspora in Germany has received little scholarly attention. Through in-depth semi-structured interviews with recent Turkish graduates of German universities, we explored how the existing diaspora provides support but also challenges for the newcomers, complicating their experiences. We argue that international student mobility led to the emergence of a new form of 'total diaspora' in Germany, comprising both the existing Turkish diaspora and newly joined Turkish graduates of German universities. Social media was instrumental for these newcomers in setting themselves apart within the total diaspora, allowing them to create their own community identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses Basil Bernstein’s work on pedagogic discourses to examine a largely neglected facet of the history of vocational education – the liberal studies movement in English further education colleges. Initially, the paper discusses some of the competing conceptions of education, work and society which underpinned the rise and fall of the liberal studies movement – if indeed it can be described as such. The paper then draws on data from interviews with former liberal and general studies lecturers to focus on the ways in which different variants of liberal studies were, over time, implicated in inculcating certain forms of knowledge in vocational learners. Whilst it is acknowledged that liberal and general studies always represented contested territory and that it was highly variable both in terms of content and quality, the paper argues that, at least under certain circumstances, liberal studies provided young working-class people with the opportunity to locate their experiences of vocational learning within a critical framework that is largely absent from further education today. This, it is argued, can be conceptualised as an engagement with what Bernstein described as ‘powerful knowledge’. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Academics are confronted with multiple and conflicting narratives as to what it is to be an academic. Their identities, however, are not entirely of their own making. Through a qualitative study, and deploying a social realist perspective, this paper analyses academic identities in Chile and attempts to locate the patterns of identity in the context of a marketised higher education system. The data were collected in both a state and a private university. The results suggest that distinct kinds of fragilities may be emerging among Chilean academics (ontological and contractual fragilities). These two fragilities can be traced to the attendant structures of the university system at an institutional level (reputational fragility in the public sector and a branding fragility in the private sector). The paper concludes by observing that, although the power of the structures is considerable, there are still spaces for agentic responses. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on the two annual conferences related to education. The annual conference for 1978 was held in King's College, London, England, on 15 December 1978. Registrations for the Conference had numbered 84 and among those attending the larger sub-groups were from Universities and Colleges of Education or Colleges and Institutes of Higher Education . Discussion group activity continued after lunch but participants met again for a plenary session in the latter part of the afternoon, not to receive conventional reports of discussions but to develop the points of special interest which had been raised and to exchange views more widely. The Standing Conference on Studies in Education will hold its annual conference on 14 December 1979 at King's College, London, England. The theme will be Individuality in Education. Circulars concerning participation in the conference will be sent to members of the Standing Conference on Studies in Education in the autumn but non-members who would like to take part in the conference should get in touch with James Scotland, Secretary, Aberdeen College of Education, Hilton Place, Aberdeen, Scotland.

This paper argues that the evolution of further education colleges in England is marked by both continuities and change, and provides evidence to show that they retain many of the characteristics and the underlying rationale present at the turn of the twentieth century. A defining characteristic remains the colleges’ need to respond to student demand in a continued climate of voluntarism and lack of policy commitment to the education of young people beyond school-leaving age. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines the compliance of universities in the European Union with the UNESCO Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher–Education Teaching Personnel, which deals primarily with protection for academic freedom. The paper briefly surveys the European genesis of the modern research university and academic freedom, before evaluating compliance with the UNESCO recommendation on institutional autonomy, academic freedom, university governance and tenure. Following from this, the paper examines the reasons for the generally low level of compliance with the UNESCO Recommendation within the EU states, and considers how such compliance could be improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops a framework for conceptualising social justice in education, drawing particularly on Martha Nussbaum's (2000) capabilities approach. The practical case for consideration is that of widening participation and pedagogical implications in higher (university) education in England. While the paper supports the value and usefulness of Nussbaum's list of ten capabilities for developing a more radical and challenging language and practice for higher education pedagogies, it also argues that her approach is limited. Other ways of conceptualising social justice are also required in order to develop adjudicating theories which enable us to judge which practices take us closer to social justice. An argument is made for ‘bivalent’ theorising which integrates individual and institutional development and agents and social structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The University of Birmingham was planned, advanced and established with both national and German models of a University in mind. Civic reasons for the planning of the University need to be viewed within a broader motivational context. Even with a strong sense of civic place, the University was conceived as a modern University with multiple founding visions. The set-up goals shifted as the size and complexity of the University increased and early ideas of social mission were either restricted or largely absent in practice. The paper examines the nature of the original institutional commitment to the ‘civic’ dimension of the University between 1900 and 1914 and highlights the many tensions that emerged between the growing academic standing of the University and its continued enthusiasm for the City and regional links. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The relationship between students and higher education is seen to have become increasingly transactional. We approach the study of the student–HE relationship in a novel way, by focusing on students' behaviour post-university, rather than on student narratives. Conceptually, the article builds on multidimensional views of student engagement and the differentiation between psychological transactional contracts – where students who achieve better academic results are more likely to donate – and relational contracts – where students donate more following engagement in social experiences. Making use of longitudinal data on donation behaviour from over 50,000 alumni from an English university over two decades, we find that while students who get better degree outcomes are more likely to donate, the association between participation in social experiences and donations is much stronger. This questions prevalent transactional models of HE and underlines the limitations of purely consumerist views of the relation between students and higher education institutions, even in the marketized UK context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Australian university case study explores the transition to emergency, remote teaching (ERT) in an intensive Block Model curriculum during the COVID-19 pandemic. An online survey investigated academics' experiences of factors that helped or hindered their transition. A thematic analysis of the data revealed a symbiotic relationship between the Block Model curriculum, professional learning, and academics' sense of agency as they experienced their transition. We relate our findings to Whittle et al.'s 2020 framework and propose an extended framework based on how teaching was influenced by the changed environment. Drawing on the extended framework, we propose lessons for the future based on how academics were reflectively adapting to ERT. In the four-week Block Model, lessons were learned and applied in the subsequent Block. Critical lessons relevant to higher education institutions include increasing diversity of effective, un-invigilated assessment types, and fostering student wellbeing by facilitating learning spaces where students connect with peers and academics. Furthermore, academics need connections with peers and safe spaces in which to debrief on evolving situations and build confidence in using new learning technologies. Professional learning fostering an emergency-informed, safe learning environment effectively reduces isolation and better prepares institutions for future emergencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

University students in the UK have encountered many challenges as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. This research aimed to track the mental well-being of a large sample of British university students (n = 554) over a one-year period of the COVID-19 pandemic, capturing data at four time points between May 2020 and May 2021. Overall retention after 12 months was 34.73%. Findings showed the COVID-19 pandemic has caused a significant, negative impact on the well-being of British university students. Students are suffering from prolonged and high levels of psychological distress and anxiety. Levels of flourishing in students are still very low. The different phases of the pandemic appear to have played an influential role in student mental health. The practical implications for higher education and recommendations for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores hidden messages sent out by schools about Oxbridge, using Basil Bernstein’s concepts of classification and framing. Research in three case-study schools captured these messages from their everyday practices and processes, including their events and activities, sorting mechanisms, interactions and resources. Whilst all of the schools sent out strong classificatory messages, marking out Oxbridge as special, they differed in their strength of framing, making explicit to differing degrees which students are ‘Oxbridge material’. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Over the past decade higher education policy in England has gradually switched from a stance of ‘government as purchaser’ to ‘government as informer’. During 2012 this policy stance has been intensified through new requirements for the advice provided by schools and the introduction of ‘Key Information Sets’ which are intended to ‘drive up quality’ through informed choice. This paper documents this policy shift and subjects it to critical scrutiny. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

As performativity within the academy continues to escalate, this paper considers the place for building research capacities through a scholarship in teaching and learning initiative at an Australian university. While the tensions that exist between discipline research and scholarship in teaching and learning remain, evaluation data for a central higher education research group suggests that an alternative research pathway is possible through collegial structures. The drive towards performativity is not unique to Australia and the evidence presented provides insights that may be useful for a broader audience that may be considering research capacity building. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Although civic purposes are implicit in the mission statements of higher education institutions, American colleges and universities have not always embraced public engagement initiatives. This paper explores how the recent emergence of the engaged campus movement has helped move public engagement initiatives from the margins to the mainstream by integrating community engagement into the research, teaching and public service functions of the academy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discussions about freedom of speech and academic freedom today are about the limits to those freedoms. However, these discussions take place mostly in the higher education trade press and do not receive any serious attention from academics and educationalists. In this paper several key arguments for limiting academic freedom are identified, examined and placed in an historical context. That contextualisation shows that with the disappearance of social and political struggles to extend freedom in society there has come a narrowing of academic life and a new and impoverished concept of ‘academic freedom’ for a diminished idea of the human subject, of humanity and of human potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purposes of higher education in general and of university education in particular have long been subject to controversy. Whereas for some, the main role of universities is to provide professional and vocational education and training and their benefits are to be measured in terms of social or economic utility, their value for others is to be seen more in terms of the liberal development and promotion of certain intrinsically worthwhile qualities of mind and intellect. In this context, indeed, much recent literature on university education has been concerned to reaffirm what are usually taken to have been the liberal purposes of bygone university education over the more instrumental or vocational agendas of much contemporary university and higher education. While recognising, along with other treatments of this issue, that it is to some extent implicated in a false dichotomy between the liberal and the vocational, this paper seeks a clearer rationale for the liberal dimensions and aspirations of university education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taking account of crucial differences between the social environments of universities in Newman's time and in ours, this paper considers two key concepts in the "The Idea of the University," the ‘philosophical’ and the ‘liberal’. It argues that, despite their merits, both concepts are beset by problems. And it suggests some lines of analysis, partly inspired by an Aristotelian influence both in Newman's own work and in some recent philosophy, that may help to address these problems and to support claims for the continuing power of Newman's thinking about university education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses various issues relating to education. Emphasis on the New Collins Dictionary's addition of several discrete entries for public entities as diverse as public convenience, public servant and public relations; Beneficial effects of publicity to universities; Adverse effects of bad publicity to universities.

This article analyses the transformation of Robert College, the first American college founded abroad, from 1923 to 1970. Based on a careful investigation of Robert College archives and personal accounts of the College staff, it contends that the school's missionary character acquired a new identity after the foundation of Republican Turkey. Robert College gradually abandoned its missionary tradition to become an institution of liberal learning in the service of westernizing Turkey. The College presidency and trustees have long elaborated on the new context and trends in liberal education in the United States. At the same time, the Turkish officers and graduates quickly adjusted to this new character immersed in secular values. The College's transition involved a shared commitment going beyond political partnership, reflecting an intellectual vision that came out of long years of negotiations within the College establishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines changes in the culture of universities in Great Britain. The government's White Paper, "Higher Education: A New Framework," aims to encourage the youth to participate in university education. Through it, the government adopted and promoted a polytechnic type commitment to quality in teaching, course design and efficiency and to the widening of access to the university system. The country's education system has awakened to the idea of student centered learning through modular degree patterns. The British university in the future could well be a modular regional and yet international centre of learning and excellence.

Trends in the status of teacher education can be examined through proposals for alternative models of course structure and delivery and the implications of these for teacher trainers and teachers. This paper implies that there exists a political will to move responsibility for teacher training from Colleges of Education and Universities to "training" schools. It indicates that, while the introduction of a market led education service suggests greater autonomy for teachers and schools, the reality is that through strengthening the role of bureaucracy in education, the Government retains strong central control over the whole service. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on teachers education in the universities and colleges. Researcher Joseph Findlay had enlarged upon the demonstration school idea to a wider audience in a contribution to Sadler's Special Reports in 1898. This outstanding paper addressed many of the issues hindering reform and among them the conventional attack on theorists. The work of researchers Catherine Dodd and Findlay at Manchester provides an insight into a number of aspects of educational change. The infiltration of new ideas from abroad, the relationship of educational thought and practice to the training of teachers, the development of child study and the emergent role of the universities in the promotion and study of education.

In 1987, U.S. Secretary of State, Kenneth Baker, announced his plan for twenty independent City Technology Colleges (CTCs) to be established and in operation by 1990. These CTCs were intended to provide a 'new choice of school' for 11-18 years olds in inner city areas and to have to a curricular bias towards science and technology. While their recurrent costs were to be met by central government, so that they did not have to charge fees to parents, all or a substantial part of their capital costs were expected to be met by business sponsors.

Highlights the annual SCSE conference held on December 16, 1983 at the King's College in London, England. Theme adopted for the event; Number of people present; Attendance of people concerned with higher education and educational studies.

The article presents information on the annual meeting of the Standing Conference on studies in education which was held in the Council Room of the College of Preceptors, in London, England. Professor Roger Wilson, of Bristol, was elected Chairman in succession to Professor A. V. Judges, as from next October. Professor Judges was elected Vice-Chairman. The offices of Secretary and Treasurer do not yet fall vacant under the Constitution. They continue to be held by Professor J. W. Tibble and Mr. Alan Milton respectively. Professors Eric Ashby, John Fulton and Geoffrey Crowther were invited by the Meeting to become members of the Standing Conference. After the business meeting of the conference devoted the rest of the day to a discussion on "The Training of Graduates for Teaching." Two papers had been circulated in advance as conference-documents: one by Professor Eaglesham on "Graduates in Training Colleges," the other by Professor Roger Wilson on "The Teaching Function of University Departments of Education."

The article presents information on the future pattern of technical education in Scotland. The development of technical education in Scotland has been under discussion for some time by various bodies in preparation for the formulation of official policy, which has now been published. In the White Paper of 1956, a building program was outlined. The White Paper recognizes four broad categories of workers, namely, technologists, technicians, craftsmen and operatives. For the first category entrance qualifications to the appropriate courses of study are to be broadly equivalent to University entrance requirements; and the courses will last for either four years or three years. The success of the program depends on the adequacy and efficiency of the teaching force. Despite the increase in the number of full-time teachers in central institutions and further education centers from 1369 in 1956 to 1725 in 1959, it is estimated that an additional 280 teachers per annum will be required between now and 1965.

Highlights the annual conference of the Standing Conference on Studies in Education held on December 16, 1983 at King's College in Strand, London, England. Theme of the meeting that caters to the social and educational effects of technological change; Opening address given by Geoffrey Hubbard, Council for Educational Technology; Circulation of background papers in advance.

This study examines the emergence and evolution of madrasa as a specific organizational form of higher learning from a comparative-historical perspective. The article begins by discussing how the madrasa emerged and which factors contributed to its rise and spread among the Islamicate political regimes during the Middle Ages and afterwards. Then, it provides a comparison between the medieval European university and the madrasa, with particular attention to the characteristics of the legal systems on which they were founded and the influences of the political environment on the respective institutions. It is argued that the differences in the legal tradition and the political authority structures may help us to grasp why madrasa and university produced different outcomes in terms of internal governance and institutional autonomy. The short discussion of the Ottoman case, where madrasas functioned as the main higher learning institutions at least until the adoption of the Western-style educational institutions from the 18th century, is presented as an illustrative case to test these assumptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern universities have largely been portrayed in the literature as an extension of nation building projects, focusing on the state as primary actor. This article challenges such presuppositions by separating 'nation' and 'state' and with a critical appropriation of diasporic subjectivity and institutions from a comparative historical perspective. The article has four themes: 'diaspora', 'ethnic internationalism', 'stateless nations' and 'internationalisation' in higher education (IHE). It illustrates these themes and their interrelationships by considering Koreans in the Japanese colonial period (1910–1945) and Jews during the British Mandate for Palestine (1920–1948) and construing them as stateless nations. These two historical cases illustrate how higher education was linked to ethnonational diasporas and internationalisation in the absence of a supportive state apparatus. The paradox is that ethnic nationalism was not only compatible but often overlapped with ethnic internationalism in higher education. The conclusion of this comparative study suggests the implications for the twenty-first century and the important role of diaspora in processes of IHE then and now. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the education policy in New Zealand. Role of the Department of Education at Victoria University in the commodity/public good debate; Argument of the Treasury Department about education as a commodity; Application of economic concepts and the language and discourse of economics to the study of education.

The article presents information related to the recent developments in the field of education. The annual general meeting of the Standing Conference on Studies in Education was held at Kings' College, London, England on December 11, 1970. The subject of the one-day Conference was "The Purpose and Structure of Higher Education." Educational structures can facilitate good work or make it difficult. They cannot guarantee it. If there is dissatisfaction the odds are that remedies are more likely to be found in changing what is done within a structure than with root-and-branch transformation. If there is a national decision that some of those qualified to enter a university will have to go to less expensive institutions there is a logical case for turning some of the present colleges of education into general colleges of liberal arts and science. Some polytechnics must still choose between providing, for some years at least, either an honors course or an ordinary, but not both, thus losing comprehensive provision, and devoting to a particular academic area greater manpower, space, and equipment resources than they would have chosen to do at that stage of their development. In any event, the need of the 1970s is not solely for an ever increasing number of very narrow vocational courses in higher education.

Highlights the conference of SCSE at King's College in London, England. Winners of the prices for books published in 1985; Numbers of members attended; Theme of the conference.

Highlights the conference for the education sector held in King's College in London, England. Theme; Organizers; Programs and activities.

Announces the SCSE conference in King's College, London. Schedule of the convention; Topic of the conference: List of participants.

This article presents a case study of successful research capacity building in the field of early childhood education in a non-research intensive, regional Australian university. In a context characterised by substantial political, economic and structural constraints, it illustrates a creative, strategic, and to some extent, transgressive approach to research capacity building inspired, in part, by concepts proffered by social theorist Gilles Deleuze. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

the university is promoted as ‘a place from where to speak’. Academic freedom is examined as a crucial value in an increasingly uncertain age which resonates with Barnett's concern to encourage students to overcome their ‘fear of freedom’. My concern is that the putative university space of freedom and autonomy may well become constricted by those who would limit not just our freedom to speak but also our freedoms to be and to do. Without academic freedom students and teachers, who might be able to fly, will not be permitted to fly. I review issues of academic freedom and free speech raised especially by Berlin, Voltaire, von Humboldt, Mill, Milton and Rorty. I discuss problems raised when free speech is heard by others as harmful and offensive to their beliefs and values. I offer a set of suggestions to ensure that the university may envision itself as a space of freedom, pluralism and tolerance. Finally, I reflect that the university, of all democratic institutions, should be the one which best serves its society as ‘a place from where to speak’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Academic freedom does not refer to freedom to engage in any speech act, but to freedom to hold any belief and espouse it in an appropriately academic manner. This freedom belongs to certain institutions, rather than to individuals, because of their academic nature. Academic freedom should be absolute, regardless of any offence it may on occasion cause. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although church-related universities in England gradually became more secular throughout the twentieth century, a group of nine teacher education colleges with church foundations have recently developed into full fledged universities. This article draws upon documentary and site-based research to evaluate the relevance of the Christian identity for these institutions in light of recent scholarship on the subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues for a new theoretical paradigm for the analysis of change in educational institutions that is able to deal with such issues as readiness for change, transformational change and the failure of change strategies. Punctuated equilibrium (Tushman and Romanelli, 1985) is a theory which has wide application. It envisages long-term change as being made up of a succession of long periods of relative stability interspersed by brief periods of rapid profound change. In the periods of stability only relatively small incremental changes are possible. The periods of transformational change may be triggered by external or internal influences. A recent study of the long-term process of internationalisation in higher education institutions shows evidence to support the theory: long periods of incremental change, events precipitating profound change and the failure of externally imposed attempts to change. Also, as the theory predicts, changes in collegial organisations are slower and more uncertain than changes in managed organisations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights the conference that will be held at King's College in London, England on December 12, 1986. Theme of the conference; Speakers of the conference; Topics that will be tackled in the conference.

Announces the death of J. A. Lauwerys, an associate professor of the Sorbonne University in Paris, France, who died on June 29, 1981.

Comments on the pressures applied on universities by the government, industries, and corporations in Great Britain. Move of the government to withhold or withdraw funds allocated for universities; Efforts of universities to survive without government funding; Defense of universities of their right to describe their own purposes.

This article explores the idea of the university in Great Britain. It approach the idea of the university by considering both the external and internal dynamics that are shaping the system. Higher education in the country is now in the middle of an expansion. This expansion has been accompanied by a radical transformation of the system. All these phenomena, the headlong expansion of student numbers, the breaking of the binary system, the radical enlargement of the university sector, the imposition of a system-wide pattern of control, a new funding regime, will transform the character of higher education in Britain.

This article aims to take a critical look at contemporary universities in the U.S. The themes in discussions of the university's mission are teaching, research, public service, and learning. The domination of the contemporary university's hierarchical-collegial and bureaucratic organization in fulfilling many of its stated missions is apparent. All observers agree that the contemporary university has remarkable resources and capabilities. In the expansion of its responsibilities, the university must devise ways of bringing its educational benefits to an ever enlarging and broader constituency.

Discusses the benefits of establishing professors of education in universities to address the neglected area of research in the history of education in Great Britain. Reference to early studies in education research; Concerns for the professorial side of education; Qualities of a professor of education.

The article focuses on factors that influences attitudes to technology in schools. A report of the Percy Committee on Higher Technological Education that was issued in 1945 consists issues dealing with national prosperity and education for a technological society. It is reported that in educational institutions, the expansion of places in science and technological faculties was not met by similar increases in the supply of students. Several causes have been advanced for this shortfall. Schools were criticized for not encouraging more of their able pupils to enter professional courses. Technicians have always sought to increase their numbers despite increasing the difficulty of their qualifications. Schools were particularly worried by the criticism that they were not supporting the technological effort in education. Academics in their turn complain that young graduates are given poor jobs and not allowed to make the contributions of which they are capable. In a nutshell, both universities and schools took a poor view of traditional metalwork.

The article presents information on educationist Sir Karl Popper and his views on education. He is one of the most distinguished contemporary philosophers and it is surprising that his thought has not permeated and informed educational discussion. This is particularly so in the light of both his personal biography and the wide appeal and general applicability of his ideas. Popper remembers with gratitude his first teacher who taught him the three R's. But he became disgruntled with his secondary schooling and in 1918, at the age of sixteen, he left school to study on his own at the University of Vienna. While a student there he did voluntary work in educationist Alfred Adler's child guidance clinics. He qualified to teach in primary schools but as there were no teaching posts available he became a social worker with neglected children. Subsequently he studied at the Pedagogic Institute where his reactions would strike a chord with present-day students. At this time he became particularly interested in psychology and he wrote a doctoral thesis on the problem of method in the psychology of thinking.