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Men and women living with HIV with access to ARVs are living longer, healthier lives that can and often do include bearing children. Children occupy a key space in men and women's personal and social lives and often play a fundamental role in maintaining these relationships, irrespective of illness concerns. Couples living with HIV need to balance prevention needs and ill-health while trying to maintain healthy relationships. Health-care providers serving the reproductive needs of HIV-affected couples need to consider the social and relational factors shaping reproductive decisions associated with periconception risk behaviors. This paper based on qualitative research at three hospital sites in eThekwini District, South Africa, investigates the childbearing intentions and needs of people living with HIV (PLHIV), and the attitudes and experiences of health-care providers serving the reproductive needs of PLHIV, and client and provider views and knowledge of safer conception. This research revealed that personal, social, and relationship dynamics shape the reproductive decisions of PLHIV, and “unplanned” pregnancies are not always unintended. Additionally, conception desires are not driven by the number of living children; rather clients are motivated by whether or not they have had any children with their current partner/spouse. Providers should consider the relationship status of clients in discussions about childbearing desires and intentions. Although many providers recognize the complex social realities shaping their clients' reproductive decisions, they have outdated information on serving their reproductive needs. Appropriate training to enable providers to better understand the relationship and social realities surrounding their clients' childbearing intentions is required and should be used as a platform for couples to work together with providers toward safer conception. The adoption of a more participatory approach should be employed to equalize client–provider power dynamics and to ensure clients are more involved in decision-making about reproduction and conception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

HIV counseling and testing (HCT) is critical for children in generalized epidemic settings, but significant shortfalls in coverage persist, notably among orphans and others at disproportionate risk of infection. This study investigates the impact of a home visiting program in South Africa on orphaned and vulnerable children’s uptake of HCT. Using propensity score matching, survey data for children receiving home visits from trained community-based care workers were compared to data from children living in similar households that had not yet received home visits (n = 1324). Home visits by community-based care workers increased the odds of a child being tested by 97% (OR = 1.97, 95% CI = 1.34–2.92). The home visitation program had an especially pronounced effect on orphans, more than doubling their odds of being tested (OR = 2.12, 95% CI = 1.00–4.47) compared to orphans living in similar households that did not receive home visits. Orphan status alone had no effect on HCT independent of program exposure, suggesting that the program was uniquely able to increase testing in this subgroup. Results highlight the potential for increasing HCT access among children at high risk through targeted community-based initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Evidence-based approaches are needed to address the high levels of sexual risk behavior and associated HIV infection among orphaned and vulnerable adolescents. This study recruited adolescents from a support program for HIV-affected families and randomly assigned them by cluster to receive one of the following: (1) a structured group-based behavioral health intervention; (2) interpersonal psychotherapy group sessions; (3) both interventions; or (4) no new interventions. With 95% retention, 1014 adolescents were interviewed three times over a 22-month period. Intent-to-treat analyses, applying multivariate difference-in-difference probit regressions, were performed separately for boys and girls to assess intervention impacts on sexual risk behaviors. Exposure to a single intervention did not impact behaviors. Exposure to both interventions was associated with risk-reduction behaviors, but the outcomes varied by gender: boys reported fewer risky sexual partnerships (β = −.48,p = .05) and girls reported more consistent condom (β = 1.37,p = .02). There was no difference in the likelihood of sexual debut for either gender. Providing both psychological and behavioral interventions resulted in long-term changes in sexual behavior that were not present when either intervention was provided in isolation. Multifaceted approaches for reducing sexual risk behaviors among vulnerable adolescents hold significant promise for mitigating the HIV epidemic among this priority population. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

HIV-positive adolescents who engage in unsafe sex are at heightened risk for transmitting or re-acquiring HIV. Disclosure of HIV-status to sexual partners may impact on condom use, but no study has explored the effects of (i) adolescent knowledge of one's HIV-status, (ii) knowledge of partner status and (iii) disclosure to partners, on safer sex behaviour. This study aimed to identify whether knowledge of HIV-status by HIV-positive adolescents and partners was associated with safer sex. Eight fifty eight HIV-positive adolescents (10–19 years old, 52% female, 68.1% vertically infected) who had ever initiated antiretroviral treatment in 41 health facilities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, were interviewed using standardised questionnaires. Quantitative analyses used multivariate logistic regressions, controlling for confounders. Qualitative research included interviews, focus group discussions and observations with 43 HIV-positive teenagers and their healthcare workers.N = 128 (14.9%) of the total sample had ever had sex, whileN = 109 (85.1%) of sexually active adolescents had boy/girlfriend. In total, 68.1% of the sample knew their status, 41.5% of those who were sexually active and in relationships knew their partner's status, and 35.5% had disclosed to their partners. For adolescents, knowing one's status was associated with safer sex (OR = 4.355, CI 1.085–17.474,p = .038). Neither knowing their partner's status, nor disclosing one's HIV-status to a partner, were associated with safer sex. HIV-positive adolescents feared rejection, stigma and public exposure if disclosing to sexual and romantic partners. Counselling by healthcare workers for HIV-positive adolescents focused on benefits of disclosure, but did not address the fears and risks associated with disclosure. These findings challenge assumptions that disclosure is automatically protective in sexual and romantic relationships for HIV-positive adolescents, who may be ill-equipped to negotiate safer sex. There is a pressing need for effective interventions that mitigate the risks of disclosure and provide HIV-positive adolescents with skills to engage in safe sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore the barriers and facilitators of linkage to and retention in care amongst persons who tested positive for HIV, qualitative research was conducted in a home-based HIV counselling and testing (HBCT) project with interventions to facilitate linkages to HIV care in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The intervention tested 1272 adults for HIV in Vulindlela of whom 32% were HIV positive, received point-of-care (POC) CD4 testing and referral to local HIV clinics. Those testing positive also received follow-up visits from a counsellor to evaluate linkages to care. The study employed a qualitative methodology collecting data through in-depth semi-structured interviews. Respondents included 25 HIV-positive persons who had tested as part of HBCT project, 4 intervention research counsellors who delivered the HBCT intervention and 9 government clinic staff who received referrals for care. The results show that HBCT helped to facilitate linkage to care through providing education and support to help overcome fears of stigma and discrimination. The results show the perceived value of receiving a POC CD4 result during post-test counselling, both for those newly diagnosed and those previously diagnosed as HIV positive. The results also demonstrate that in-depth counselling creates an “educated consumer” facilitating engagement with clinical services. The study provides qualitative insights into the acceptability of confidential HBCT with same day POC CD4 testing and counselling as factors that influenced HIV-positive persons’ decisions to link to care. This model warrants further evaluation in non-research settings to determine impact and cost-effectiveness relative to other HIV testing and referral strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there is a high prevalence of anxiety and depression amongst people receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART), many patients are not screened, diagnosed or referred for mental health problems. This study aims to determine whether public sector health care workers in South Africa observe, screen, diagnose and refer ART patients that show symptoms of common mental disorders. It also aims to ascertain the extent of mental health training received by public sector health care workers working in ART. The study was cross-sectional in design. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 40 nurses and structured interviews were conducted with 23 lay workers across the five districts in the Free State between July 2009 and October 2009. STATA version 12 was used to perform statistical data analysis. The health care workers reported observing a high frequency of symptoms of common mental disorders among public sector ART patients. While 70% of nurses screened and diagnosed, only 40% of lay workers screened and diagnosed patients on ART for a mental disorder. Health care workers who had received training in mental health were more likely to screen or diagnose a mental disorder, but only 14% of the workers had received such training. We recommend that health care workers should receive task-specific training to screen and/or diagnose patients on ART for common mental disorders using the guidelines of the South African HIV Clinicians Society. A positive diagnosis should be referred to a health care practitioner for appropriate evidence-based treatment in the form of medication or psychotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Depression and other health problems are common co-morbidities among persons living with human immunodeficiency virus infection/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). The aim of this study was to investigate depression, health status, and substance use in relation to HIV-infected and uninfected individuals in South Africa. Using a cross-sectional case-control design, we compared depression, physical health, mental health, problem alcohol use, and tobacco use in a sample of HIV-infected (N= 143) and HIV-uninfected (N= 199) respondents who had known their HIV status for two months. We found that depression was higher, and physical health and mental health were lower in HIV-positive than HIV-negative individuals. Poor physical health also moderated the effect of HIV infection on depression; HIV-positive individuals were significantly more depressed than HIV-negative controls, but only when general physical health was also poor. We did not find an association between alcohol or tobacco use and HIV status. These results suggest the importance of incorporating the management of psychological health in the treatment of HIV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alcohol use is associated with compromised antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence. We aimed to identify patterns and predictors of ART use among alcohol drinkers. Using purposive sampling, we recruited 304 male and female patients from two ART clinics in Tshwane, South Africa. Interviews were conducted using a structured questionnaire comprising measures of demographic factors, psychosocial factors (i.e., ART adherence, self-efficacy beliefs, alcohol and ART interactions beliefs, ART-alcohol outcome expectancy, attitude towards drinking alcohol and taking ART and HIV stigma) and alcohol use (AUDIT). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and three multivariate linear regressions. Forty percent of the sample reported drinking alcohol. Half of the drinkers endorsed one of three unique patterns of ART use: (1) dosing ART earlier than required (2) taking ART while drinking alcohol and (3) skipping ART doses. The other half endorsed combinations of ART use on drinking days, for example, earlier ART dosing and taking ART while drinking alcohol was the most common combination. High adherence perseverance (a self-efficacy subscale) and a non-favourable attitude towards drinking alcohol and taking ART predicted the unique pattern of taking ART early when planning to drink alcohol. The unique pattern of taking ART despite drinking alcohol was predicted by higher levels of education (marginal significance) and experiencing low HIV stigma. A high score on the AUDIT and experience of high stigma predicted the unique pattern of skipping ART doses when drinking alcohol. Patterns of ART taking in alcohol drinkers in this sample are varied, and not always mutually exclusive. This apparent complexity of medication taking patterns among alcohol drinkers warrants further exploration. Furthermore, the finding that different psychosocial factors predict different ART-taking patterns suggests a need for programmes to improve alcohol-related non-adherence to ART to be multifaceted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Community health workers (CHWs) are important resources in health systems affected by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. International guidelines on task-shifting recommend that CHWs can provide diverse HIV services, ranging from HIV prevention to counselling patients for lifelong antiretroviral therapy. There is, however, little evidence on the experiences with CHW delivery of these services in Africa. This qualitative study included 102 interviews that explored experiences with information, education and communication (IEC) activities provided by CHWs within rural South Africa. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with CHWs (n= 17), their clients (n= 33) and the primary caregivers of these clients (n= 30), allowing for data source triangulation. Twenty-two follow-up interviews explored emergent themes from preliminary interviews. Despite limited formal education and training, CHWs in this study were significant providers of IEC, including provision of generic health talks and HIV-specific information and facilitation to support clients’ entry and maintenance in the formal health system. They often incorporated local knowledge and understanding of illness in their communication. CHWs in this study were able to bridge the lifeworlds of the community and the formal services to expedite access and adherence to local clinics and other services. As mediators between the two worlds, CHWs reinterpreted health information to make it comprehensible in their communities. With growing formalisation of CHW programmes in South Africa and elsewhere, CHWs’ important role in health service access, health promotion and health maintenance must be recognised and supported in order to maximise impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in pregnancy is an important intervention to prevent the mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV and to promote maternal health. Early initiation of ART is particularly important to achieve viral suppression rapidly before delivery. However, current approaches to start ART in pregnancy may be problematic in many settings, with referrals between antenatal care (ANC) and ART services, and delays for patient preparation before ART initiation. These steps contribute to a sizable proportion of women failing to receive adequate duration of ART before delivery, increasing the risk of MTCT. To address these limitations, we developed the rapid initiation of antiretroviral therapy in pregnancy (RAP) programme. The programme featured the use of point-of-care CD4 testing to identify ART-eligible women with CD4 cell counts ≤ 350 cells/µl; immediate ART initiation in women on the same day that eligibility was determined, if possible; and intensive counselling and support for ART initiation during the first few weeks on ART. We implemented RAP in an antenatal clinic setting in Cape Town South Africa. Between February and August 2011, a total of 221 HIV-infected women were referred to the programme for CD4 cell count testing and 101 (46%) were eligible for ART. Of these, 98 women (97%) started therapy during pregnancy, 89 (91%) on the day of referral to the service. In-depth interviews suggested that although there were substantial challenges facing HIV-infected women initiating ART in pregnancy, the availability of immediate services and counselling support played an important role in addressing these. While further research is needed, this evaluation demonstrates that a novel service delivery approach may facilitate rapid ART initiation in pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In resource-limited settings, successful HIV treatment scale-up has been tempered by reports of funding shortfalls. We aimed to determine the priorities, including ethical considerations, of decision makers for HIV antiretroviral programs. We conducted qualitative interviews with 12 decision makers, identified using purposive sampling. Respondents engaged in one-on-one, semi-structured interviews. We developed an interview guide to direct questions about key priorities and motivations for decision making about HIV antiretroviral programs. We evaluated textual data from the interviews to identify themes. Among 12 respondents, 10 (83%) lived and worked in South Africa. Respondents came from Western Cape, Gauteng, and KwaZulu-Natal provinces and worked primarily in urban settings. The respondents supported prioritizing individual patients based on treatment adherence, pregnancy status to prevent maternal-to-child HIV transmission and/or orphans, and severity of illness. However, priorities based on severity of illness varied, with first-come/first-serve, prioritization of the most severely ill, and prioritization of the least severely ill discussed. Respondents opposed prioritizing based on patient socioeconomic characteristics. Other priorities included the number of persons receiving treatment; how treated patients are distributed in the population (e.g., urban/rural); and treatment policy (e.g., number of antiretroviral regimens). Motivations included humanitarian concerns; personal responsibility for individual patients; and clinical outcomes (e.g., patient-level morbidity/mortality, saving lives) and/or social outcomes (e.g., restoring patients as functional family members). Decision makers have a wide range of priorities for antiretroviral provision in South Africa, and the motivations underlying these priorities suggest at times conflicting ethical considerations for providing HIV treatment when resources are limited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]