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The EU has set the ambitious target of raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 32% by 2030, with a target of climate neutrality by 2050. The aim of this paper is to assess the role of biomass usage in the context of these targets. The paper identifies the progress made between 2013 and 2022 by focusing on a selection of EU countries. The largest bioenergy increments of 130, 77, and 60 PJ were reported for Poland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. This study evaluates the crucial role of co-generation and heat in EU regions, with biomass usage between 55 and 80% of the combined heat and power (CHP) energy in Nordic countries. The future perspectives for bioenergy based on EU policies, biomass resources, and technical issues were addressed. The EU possesses around 9% of the global biomass supply, ensuring a certain level of biomass resource dependence. Thus, the biomass usage demand in energy production, non-energy sectors, and transport is expected to rise, leading to increments of 13–76% on biomass imports. It appears that bioenergy development is mostly limited by economic issues and uneven support for bioenergy in different EU countries as well as environmental issues. The study shows a promising and sustainable potential of bioenergy in the EU as a renewable energy source while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and the economy. By 2050, liquid biofuels are likely to be increasingly used in the transport sector. Non-energy sector usage of biomass is still in an early stage of development, except for the pulp and paper industry, and significant use of biomass in non-energy sectors seems unlikely in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a thorough examination of methane capture from Polish coal mines, contextualized within the framework of the European Union's (EU) climate policy objectives. Through a strategic analysis encompassing the interior of coal mines, the surrounding environment, and the macro environment, this study elucidates the complex dynamics involved in methane emissions and capture initiatives. The key findings include a declining trend in absolute methane emissions since 2008, despite fluctuations in coal extraction volumes, and a relatively stable level of methane capture exceeding 300 million m3/year since 2014. The analysis underscores the critical role of government support, both in terms of financial incentives and streamlined regulatory processes, to facilitate the integration of methane capture technologies into coal mining operations. Collaboration through partnerships and stakeholder engagement emerges as essential for overcoming resource competition and ensuring the long-term success of methane capture projects. This paper also highlights the economic and environmental opportunities presented by methane reserves, emphasizing the importance of investment in efficient extraction technologies. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, particularly regarding the low efficiency of current de-methanation technologies. Recommendations for modernization and technological innovation are proposed to enhance methane capture efficiency and utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European Union, increasing attention is already being paid not only to the development of renewable energy sources, but also to the establishment of solutions to achieve local energy self-sufficiency while increasing the role of citizens in managing the energy they generate. This approach is expected both to have a positive impact on the environment and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and to enhance energy security—both in economic and civic terms by, i.a., combating energy poverty. The development of local energy communities promoted in the EU is supported i.a. by energy cooperatives. These contribute to the efficient harnessing of renewable energy potential in rural and urban-rural areas, and have been developing in Poland for several years now. In their previous studies, the authors of this research paper attempted to verify the generation (number, type and capacity of installed sources) and consumption (energy demand) configurations in which an energy cooperative would be a viable solution for prosumers who might establish it. However, over the past few years, the conditions for prosumers and the method of their accounting with the electricity seller have changed radically in Poland (shift from net metering to net billing). This situation has opened up space for further research and encouraged the authors to revisit the problem of analyzing the viability of establishing energy cooperatives in relation to the rules of operation of individual prosumers. This research was carried out for three scenarios, and the horizon of the analyses conducted and described extends to 2045. The comparative analysis included energy consumers without their own generation sources, prosumers with a photovoltaic generation installation covered by the net billing model, as well as a scenario involving prosumers' cooperation within an energy cooperative, which by law is settled in the net metering model. Conclusions from the research and simulations made it possible to confirm the claim that, despite changes in the rules of prosumer billing, developing energy independence in the energy community formula results in a significant reduction in the cost of purchasing electricity (even several times lower purchase costs in the timeframe analyzed) and can lead to a reduction in the payback time of investments in generation sources even by a factor of two. The results presented in this research paper open up space for further research. The outcomes allow us to assume that energy cooperatives—in the organizational and institutional model in Poland—are a good tool for reducing the phenomenon of energy poverty on a local scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green transition is a challenge for the Polish economy and energy sector. In this paper, the expert method of analysis was applied and findings revealed that the challenges and prerequisites for an effective transformation of the power sector mainly include technical, technological and organizational issues of energy production and use. The provision of electricity at competitive prices and with a low carbon footprint, for individual consumers and industry, is a prerequisite for maintaining the well-being of the population and ensuring the competitiveness of domestically produced goods. The ambitious climate policy goals of the European Union require immediate action and call for radical changes in the Polish energy sector; in the coming years, it must drastically reduce the amount of energy produced from fossil fuels and replace it with so-called green energy from renewable sources. The main purpose of this article was to highlight the need to modify Poland's energy policy until 2040 in order to make it more consistent with the ambitious climate goals of the European Union. This article also shows that Poland's energy transition must include a shift from fossil fuels to renewables, while ensuring that energy security is stabilized by the current energy and generation resources. To this end, we discuss the issues of creating reserves in the national energy system for the entire period of Poland's energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable development and the creation of smart, green cities requires cooperation in many scientific fields, including those related to ecology, mobility, or sustainable management, among others. Environmental protection is a particularly important element here. Atmospheric pollution, due to air movements, spreads over very large areas; therefore, air quality monitoring is crucial to ensure protection from harmful substances. One of the most severe sources of air pollution, accounting for as much as approximately 25% of total annual emissions within the EU, is road transport. Therefore, the European Union has set an ambitious target to reduce total emissions to 55% for cars and 50% for vans by 2030. In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become increasingly popular in many scientific fields, including environmental protection and photogrammetry. The use of UAVs to identify harmful pollutants allows them to gain an advantage over conventional detection methods, due to the possibility of remote (therefore safe for humans), faster, and area-based measurements. Given the ever-expanding scale of the use of this technology, this paper presents the possibilities of using UAVs to identify and visualize (map) pollution. The examples presented in the foreign literature, as well as our own research, in imaging the altitude distribution of air pollutants; gaseous pollutants: C6H6, HCHO, SO2; and particulate matter: PM1, PM2.5, PM10 demonstrate the validity of such measures. This research was carried out in the area of one of Poland's key A4 highways. The maps obtained allow for an area-wise and altitude-wise presentation of one of the significant air pollutants in the EU. In addition, they can be a valuable source of information for the implementation of future projects and the improvement of road infrastructure, thus contributing to the reduction of air pollution and the creation of so-called "green cities". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union's climate policy aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 and to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. One of the instruments for achieving these climate goals is the development of offshore wind energy. Unfortunately, Poland, as one of the few European Union countries with access to the sea, does not have offshore wind farms yet. The purpose of this article is to determine the importance of offshore wind energy for the development of Poland based on the example of two sea regions: the West Pomeranian and Pomeranian Voivodeships. This article uses the input–output method to determine the economic effects of offshore wind power. The region's share in the supply chain was determined based on the location of the offshore wind energy sector. A comparative analysis with the Saint-Brieuc offshore wind farm in France made it possible to show the differences between the studied locations. The supply chain share of the regions surveyed was 2.28% and 6.00% in the CAPEX phase and 5.98% and 8.23% in the OPEX phase. The annual average global value in the CAPEX phase at the country level was EUR 2793 million, and at the regional level, EUR 243 million and EUR 663 million. In the OPEX phase, the corresponding values are EUR 2106 million, EUR 223 million and EUR 663 million. The average annual employment in the CAPEX phase at the national level amounted to 26,323 jobs and at the regional level, 1953 and 5804. In the OPEX phase, employment amounted to 4790, 558 and 751 jobs, respectively. On the other hand, the average annual value added in the CAPEX phase at the national level was EUR 1221 million, and at the regional level, it was EUR 106 million and EUR 290 million. In the OPEX phase, it was EUR 920 million, EUR 97 million and EUR 239 million, respectively. While not all of the findings are conclusive, in general, the domestic offshore wind industry has weaker economic linkages and lower wage levels than the location adopted for comparison. It uses more labour-intensive economic sectors with lower OPEX value added. The results of the analyses presented in this paper are of crucial importance not only for Poland, as their advantage is the possibility to present, from an economic point of view, the profitability of this type of investment in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is an important producer of rapeseed used in the biofuel industry. The rate of production of the biofuel industry increased after Poland's accession to the European Union (EU). The reasons for these changes are numerous, of which the European Union's energy policy is the most important. This paper aims to analyze the performance of the biofuel industry in Poland in view of changes in the market. Moreover, I evaluated changes in the biofuel industry after Poland's accession to the EU. In addition, I analyzed the fixed and current assets of the Polish biofuel. The hypothesis that the price of rapeseed oil is the key determinant of profitability in the biodiesel industry was formulated. A statistical analysis proved the second hypothesis stating that the net profit of biodiesel companies depends on biodiesel production to the greatest extent. The time range of the analysis was 2005–2021. To analyze the economic performance of the biofuel industry in Poland, these changes were used. A regression analysis to find factors influencing the economic performance of the biofuel industry was used. More and more oils are used for the production of first-generation biofuels. Refined rapeseed oil also increased from 386.5 thousand tons to 780.6 thousand tons. Such numbers demonstrate the development of biofuel markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of ongoing climate changes and the current geopolitical situation, Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are continuously gaining popularity in many countries. Objectives related to environmental protection and the use of RES set by different countries all over the world, as well as by the European Union (EU), are becoming priorities for many. The increase in the installed capacity of photovoltaic systems has been growing steadily for several years, leading to the creation of new systems accompanying PV installations; this phenomenon has also been observed in Poland. This paper presents a photovoltaic system in the form of a bicycle shed next to a school building as an example of building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) without connection to the power grid. It was shown that the energy consumption profile should be properly correlated with the production profile, otherwise significant losses occur. Alternative methods to improve the correlation of production and energy consumption by using SCADA systems or building automation to properly manage the electricity generation and consumption installation were also proposed. Furthermore, it was shown that adopting a fixed discount rate in financial analyses can distort the picture of real profits. An analysis of the changes in the NPV ratio using variable discount rates was carried out when analyzing the entire life of the solar plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is a key driver of all modern economies. Sustainable development is playing an increasingly important role both at regional and local levels. It is a compromise between social and economic needs and the preservation of nature. In the policy of the European Union, the idea of sustainable development and environmental protection is of decisive importance for the implemented programs and economic activities. Contemporary challenges require the transformation of the energy market towards greater use of renewable sources. According to Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and European Council on promoting energy from renewable sources, Poland has committed itself to achieving a 23% share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption by 2030. This goal considers total energy consumption in terms of power, engineering, heating, refrigeration, and transport. The aim of this paper was, firstly, an analysis of the share of renewable energy in the European Union over an 18-year period (2004–2021), with particular emphasis on the position of Poland. The second objective was the analysis of renewable energy at the local level in Poland, i.e., at the local government unit (LAU) level. Changes in the share of renewable energy in Poland compared to other European countries were also examined. The study utilized functional analysis of principal components and cluster analysis based on the data from the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT. The study found that while Poland does not differ significantly from other countries in using renewable energy, it does fall below the European average. Principal component analysis suggests that Poland responds adequately to European changes in the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption. This dynamic is stable (over 95% explained by the first component) and applies to most countries surveyed. In addition, the authors sought to answer questions relating to the current status of renewable energy sources in Poland, the barriers and challenges facing the introduction of renewable energy in the country, a comparative analysis of Poland's progress in renewable energy with other global counterparts, and an exploration of the future prospects and potential for the development of renewable energy in Poland. The study found that the potential for renewable energy is greatest in the northern areas of Poland, with photovoltaics and wind power plants providing the greatest capacity. Poland's renewable energy potential is very high and will be determined by technological development, political, economic, and social issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the conditions behind energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in Poland following its accession to the European Union. The study analyzed some energy, fossil fuel, economic, and environmental indicators, such as energy use, CO2 emissions, driving factors, decoupling elasticity status, and decoupling effort status. It relied on the Kaya identity and Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) in determining the drivers of CO2 emissions. As shown by the results, between 2004 and 2020, energy consumption in Poland grew at an average annual rate of 0.8%, while fossil fuel carbon emissions declined at 0.7% per year. Energy intensity was found to be the key force behind the reduction in CO2 emissions, whereas rapid economic growth was the main driver of CO2 emissions. While other factors, i.e., carbon intensity, energy mix, and population, also contributed to reducing the emissions, they had a much smaller—if not marginal—effect. In turn, the decoupling elasticity analysis showed that Poland mostly witnessed strong decoupling states, which means a strong decoupling of CO2 emissions from economic growth. Furthermore, it follows from the decoupling effort analysis that strong decoupling effort statuses prevailed throughout the study period, suggesting that the changes in the considered factors significantly contributed to reducing CO2 emissions. However, both the decoupling elasticity indices and the decoupling effort indices revealed the presence of an adverse trend. The above means that Poland witnessed a decline both in the strength of decoupling CO2 emissions from economic growth and in the efficiency of policies and measures designed to reduce CO2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes examples of energy crops that are profitable to burn, and whose cultivation is not complicated or expensive. Rapid growth of biomass, especially the green mass of energy crops, is indicated, which means that, in relation to fossil fuels, energy crops are considered renewable raw materials. An assessment of Polish non-food energy agriculture was conducted in the context of the prospects of a renewable energy source, namely, biomass. Recommendations for crop cultivation, the size of possible yields and the most important parameters of the obtained biomass, which have the greatest impact on the suitability of energy use, are presented. Materials of biological origin for combustion are divided into three groups: wood waste, by-products and plant products for the energy industry. It is indicated that 2 tons (Mg) of dry wood or straw is energetically equivalent to 1 Mg of coal, and 1 m3 of biogas is energetically equivalent to 1 kg of Polish coal. A novelty of this article is the interpretation of obtaining primary energy, including energy from renewable sources, in the European Union and Poland, taking into account the production of wood waste, straw, cereals and energy crops. The mechanism of the impact of the production parameters of energy crops was revealed during the prepared analysis of the prospects of Polish energy agriculture. Additionally, we conducted an analysis of the potential of biomass as a source of energy in the context of: obtaining primary energy, including energy from renewable sources, in the European Union and Poland; the number of biogas plants in Poland; and the area of agricultural land that is potentially useful for the cultivation of energy crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union obliged the member states to introduce monitoring and control tools in order to improve the quality of provided transmission services and to guarantee the contracted amount of energy to end users. However, the EU has left the member states the freedom to create and implement compensation tools, enabling customers to claim their rights arising from non-compliance by transmission companies with the provisions of distribution agreements. The introduction of quantitative energy monitoring and an appropriate compensation mechanism is of great importance not only for end users but also for distribution companies. For end users, this would be a tool to enforce their rights against transmission companies, while transmission companies would gain a tool to control and manage both legal and financial risks. The aim of this study is to analyze discount as an example of a guarantee instrument in the field of the consumer's right to energy of an adequate quality based on the Polish example supported by a systematic legal review. In the EU, discount is not regulated directly at the EU level; hence, it is impossible to base it on acquis and analyze it through the prism of EU regulation. In Poland, the possibility for recipients to apply for a discount for poor-quality electricity was introduced into the first version of the Energy Law in 1998, long before the adoption of Directive 2019/944 by the EU. The fundamental issues that were addressed and discussed in this paper were as follows: (1) Is the discount compensatory in nature? (2) Should it be included in the compensation due to the consumer? (3) Is it possible to reduce it when the power supply interruption results from circumstances beyond the control of the energy company (e.g., unforeseen weather conditions)? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable Energy Sources (RES) have been gaining popularity on a continuous basis and the current global political situation is only accelerating energy transformation in many countries. Objectives related to environmental protection and use of RES set by different countries all over the world as well as the European Union (EU) are becoming priorities. In Poland, after years of a boom in photovoltaic (PV) installations, the Renewable Energy Sources Act has been amended, resulting in a change to the billing system for electricity produced by individual prosumers. The change in the billing method, also in pursuance to the provisions of EU laws, has contributed to the inhibition of the PV installation market for fear of energy prices and investment payback time. In this paper, by using the Net Present Value (NPV) method, three mechanisms of billing of electricity from prosumer micro-installations—based on the net-metering principle and net-billing principle (using monthly and hourly prices)—have been analysed. Particular attention has also been paid to the aspects of electricity self-consumption and energy storages, which play a significant role in the economy of PV installations in the net-billing system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is a big user of fossil fuels for electricity and heat production. The most important fossil fuel is hard, brown coal and the Polish energy system is based on this source. However, the world has begun to decarbonize the climate and reduce the carbon dioxide and methane which are the main gasses impacting climate change. The main aim of this paper was to recognize changes in Polish coal sector. We focused our attention to the economic situation and employment in coal sector in Poland. The time rage included 1989–2020 and the prognosis 2021–2025. The Polish coal sector faced dramatic changes. The number of hard coal mines decreased from 70 in 1990 to 21 in 2020. In the same timeframe, the prices for hard coal increased from 12.37 PLN/dt to 313.27 PLN/dt. The employment decreased from more than 350 thousand to less than 100 thousand people in hard coal mines. The decrease changes are the effect of strict policies of the European Union. The economic situation of Polish hard coal mines is rather poor. Polish mines achieved negative economic results due to the effect of poor management. We used advanced statistics, including the Augmented Dickey–Fuller test (ADF), to measure the stationarity of analyzed time series. We also used Generalized AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (GARCH) models and conducted a prognosis. Our research proved that the time series describing the hard coal economic situation were not stationary. The Generalized AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (GARCH) models confirmed big changes in Polish coal sector economic results. The elaborated prognosis of variables proved that the price of hard coal will increase in 2021–2025. Moreover, the economic situation will be worse. Our analysis confirmed that global trends of the hard coal sector were influenced by the European Union (EU) energy policy and closing down the mines. The economic situation of Polish hard coal sector worsened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to identify the state of residential buildings in terms of energy consumption and modernisation in Poland against the background of the EU, and to determine factors and activities increasing households′ interest in net-zero energy buildings. In the European Union, we are observing a tendency to increase the energy efficiency of buildings, including residential, and decarbonise building stock by 2050. The objective of the undertaken activities is to reduce energy use and the negative impacts of the use of buildings on the environment. Attaining this objective requires modernising many buildings. This dissertation includes an investigation into the condition of buildings in Poland from the aspect of energy use and the kind of carriers of this energy, and also into another issue: what factors and activities may increase society′s interest in net-zero energy buildings, and in the use of energy from renewable sources in residential buildings. The studies were conducted with the use of the data provided by the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT, and also of the reports of the European Commission, the data of the Central Emission Register of Buildings (CERB) and the Odysse–Mure database. An important source of information was also surveys conducted with the application of CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview), and also of PAPI (Paper and Pencil Interview), among 387 households in Poland. For the purpose of analysing the results of the studies, the methods of descriptive statistics, the chi-square test of independence, the ANOVA test of Kruskal–Wallis and the Mann–Whitney U-test were used. The analysis gives rise to the conclusion that, in residential buildings, household′s annual primary energy demand is dependent on the year in which a building was commissioned. Newer buildings can boast smaller heat energy use. Simultaneously, ever more households are undertaking activities that will result in the thermal modernisation of residential buildings. The studies have shown that the development of net-zero energy buildings requires undertaking activities in the scope of introducing allowances and subsidies, and also increasing social awareness in the scope of this kind of building. Interest in buildings using solely renewable energy sources is contributed to by raising energy prices, and also the falling prices of required installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to analyze the effectiveness of the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) concept for packaging in the context of the transition to a Circular Economy (CE) and the corresponding transformation of the energy sector. The functioning of today's packaging industry is becoming more and more linked to the assumptions of the CE due to the use and recycling of raw materials. The basic research method used in this work is an analysis of the literature on the links between the concept of the EPR and the CE. The authors limited their research to the selected legal, economic and social aspects of packaging production and management in the European Union (EU). The situation in Poland is discussed in particular and the legal, economic and social specificity of the implementation of the EPR in this country is presented. This paper emphasizes the dependance between the implementation of the EPR concept and the effectiveness of the transformation toward a CE, which is achieved by increasing the circularity in the energy sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a necessity to combine the development of the European Union with a model of a sustainable economy, which is important to stimulate eco-innovation. The government of each member state is obliged to create support mechanisms that will encourage entrepreneurs to implement pro-environmental solutions. This requires the identification of determinants for eco-innovation. This paper identifies and compares conditions of eco-innovation in two sectors in Poland: ICT (information and communication technologies) and industry. Putting together many different types of conditions into one model (including government, science, industry, and ICT) allows us to explain what is more important when making a decision about implementing new eco-solutions. The study covered over 3000 enterprises. Stepwise logit regression was used to examine all relationships of interest. We discovered two separate (independent) paths of approach to eco-innovation for ICT and industry. This means that another condition should be fulfilled to reach any eco-innovation in each of the sectors. There are just a few factors supporting new environmental solutions in ICT with strong impact—cooperation with suppliers, journals as a source of new knowledge, or financial support by credit institutions with high materials and energy efficiency at the end of the process. Industry could be described more like a horizontal approach—a wide number of conditions with low impact on eco-innovation. Therefore, innovation policies in the catching-up country should be more sophisticated and take care of more relevant tools for both sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union remains at the top tier of the union's legacies with the aim of bequeathing a sustainable future for all. Series of actions geared towards reforming the environmental and climate goals of the CAP are constantly being taken. The objective of this paper is to verify if the environmental and climatic CAP measures proposed in Poland's Strategic Development Plan for Agriculture, for the years 2023–2027, reflect farmers' preferences regarding the structure of the CAP support. To achieve this goal, we model a hypothetical strategic game involving farmers from different regions. The outcomes of the game were derived from the ex-post analysis of EU funds, in the application for environmental and climatic CAP measures, in addition to the results of simulations of the partial equilibrium model for the agricultural sector (CAPRI). It was found out that farmers from regions with disadvantaged agrarian structures would find it more difficult to cope with new eco-schemes due to the fact that good agricultural practices are rather low in such regions. For the long-term development of Polish agriculture, the agrarian structures need to be improved, as this affects the emission of greenhouse gases. The varying preferences of farmers from different Polish regions in implementing eco-schemes can be balanced by increasing redistributive payments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biofuels are becoming more important in the renewable energy sources mix. Liquid biofuels are products of agriculture. Bioethanol can be prepared from corn, beetroot and other plants. Biodiesel is mainly made from rapeseed. This paper presents information about biodiesel development in Poland, as well as some background information about its development in the European Union (EU). We analyzed the data about biofuels in the literature, and provide statistical data about liquid biofuel in Poland and other countries of the EU. The aim of the study is to assess the viability of liquid biofuel development in Poland. The base for biodiesel production in Poland and the EU is rapeseed. The production yields and sown area of rapeseed increased in Poland from 2005–2020. This was due to integration and European Union policies which aim to supply clean energy. The energy mix in Poland differs from that of the EU. Solid biofuels have made up the biggest share of renewable energy sources in Poland (73.4%) and the EU (40.1%). Poland has smaller share of wind energy, biogas, heat pump, water energy, solar anergy, municipal waste and geothermal energy in its renewable energy sources compared to the rest of the EU. Only with solid and liquid biofuels is the share of renewable energy sources larger in Poland compared to the EU averages. Poland has decreased its share of solid biofuels and water energy among its renewable energy sources, while other sources have increased. Poland is investing to increase its renewable energy sources. To analyze the opportunities for biodiesel production in Poland, we used the scenario method of analysis. We outlined three scenarios. The first is increasing the production of biodiesel by 3% each year for the next three years. The second is production remains unchanged, i.e., at the 2020 level. The last scenario is decreasing production by 3% each year. According to the first scenario, the total demand for rapeseed for energy and food purposes will be 375 thousand tons in 2025. Such a scenario is very likely to occur because of the growing demand for biodiesel and edible oil. The current situation with Ukraine and the Russian Federation will create an increase in demand for rapeseed, leading to higher prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The activity and initiatives undertaken by financial institutions to protect the environment are now the goal of the evolution of the entire financial market. However, it is important not to ignore the legal issues and their implications, which to a large extent now permeate many financial decisions and affect the practices and behaviours of banks. The main objective of this paper was to identify the current condition of and ongoing developments in European Union legal regulations concerning Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG) and sustainable finance. An important aspect of this study was also to analyse the tools, legal instruments, standards and guidelines of the European Commission and the European Banking Authority (EBA) and those proposed by the international business environment in the area of non-financial reporting ESG disclosures in the EU banking sector as exemplified by Poland. In addition, this paper analyses the status of implementation of ESG-related requirements set by the EU legal framework by banks, banking associations and associations of cooperative banks operating in Poland. To achieve the objectives of this study, and to answer the research questions posed, an analysis of primary and secondary sources was carried out in conjunction with a review of the (national and foreign) literature on the subject. Two non-reactive research methodologies were used in the design of this study: the doctrinal legal method and desk research. The results of the analysis indicate that EU regulations are at the drafting stage and those adopted so far require a number of amendments. Banker associations have voiced extensive criticism of the regulations, which are viewed by banks as inadequate, unclear and inconsistent. Both EU and Polish banker associations primarily point to a high degree of generality in the solutions and legal frameworks adopted. The legal acts enacted to date do not correspond to the needs of the market. The analysis of the positions of the banking associations also revealed that the EU legislation still has gaps preventing a harmonised approach to the comprehensive and consistent integration of ESG factors by banks in their strategy and operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides the analysis of fuel and energy transition in households sector and its sustainable development in the period 2004–2019. The main purpose of the paper is to determine the development trends in the use of renewable energy sources (RES) in the EU countries household sector in 2004–2019, to recognize the state of development and functioning of the studied area as well as to indicate their successes and shortcomings in observed reality. The article employs the results of Energy balance sheets from Eurostat. The research entity were households from 28 European Union countries, with particular emphasis on households from Poland and selected neighboring countries. The research subjects there were different sources of renewable energy used by households, i.e., solar thermal system, geothermal technologies, primary solid biofuels, charcoal, biogases, blended biogasoline, blended biodiesels, ambient heat (heat pumps). To achieve the research objective a number of statistical measures ands methods, including cluster analysis and linear trend indicator applied. In the analyzed 16 years, an absolute and relative increase in the use of RES in the household sector was noticed. Taking into account the specificity of using RES in households, 6 clusters of countries were distinguished. In Poland, it was noted that there was a significant increase in the use of RES in households, with stagnation in the use of non-renewable energy sources, such as, for example, hard coal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the extent, scope and importance of financial support for Polish organic farming from 2004 to 2019. The analysis focuses particularly on how the changes in the amount and structure of organic farming payments affected farmers' interest in specific organic crops during three financing periods: the 2004–2006 Rural Development Plan, the 2007–2013 Rural Development Programme (RDP) and the 2014–2020 Rural Development Programme. This paper aims to answer the question of whether and to what extent the organic farming support policy impacted the development trends followed by, and transformation processes affecting, this sector. It follows from this analysis that in the first decade after joining the European Union, Poland implemented a policy of making payments easily available. It was primarily focused on the quantitative growth of organic farming rather than on stimulating supply. As the payments were easily accessible and decoupled from production, subsidy-oriented farmers were additionally encouraged to seek political rent. This resulted in the instability of a large group of farms who discontinued their organic farming activity in 2014. That year, the policy was amended because of the need to improve the allocation efficiency of subsidies and to couple them with the provision not only of environmental public goods but also of private goods in the form of organic farming products. The current support policy opens up greater opportunities for leveraging the potential of organic farming while reaping environmental and socioeconomic benefits and contributing more than ever to sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with issues related to analyzing the spread of air pollution and pollutants in large urban agglomerations, specifically, the search for causality between meteorological conditions and the concentrations of particular substances. The pollutants SO2 and PM10 were selected for analysis, which, in addition to NOx, CO, CO2 and PM2.5, contribute to smog, especially during the heating seasons. This analysis is particularly important because Polish environmental standards are more lenient than those in western EU states. Industrial activity, transport and heating systems based on coal-burning are still a big problem in Poland, and each year their gaseous and particulate emissions exceed air-quality limits. This paper presents a statistical analysis of data recorded at the air-quality monitoring station on Kossuth Street in Katowice concerning the heating seasons from 2013–2016. The verification of proposed parabolic models containing concentrations from previous time periods and statistically significant meteorological conditions was conducted for individual heating seasons as well for the whole set of data, which included the influence of wind speed and temperature. The models obtained proved that the selected form of a model is statistically significant, and its use may produce satisfactory forecast results and permit various environmental applications. The specified model might be used both for forecasting (verification and possibly updating coefficients to increase forecast accuracy) and analyzing the factors influencing pollution values. Such statistical analysis may be helpful in assessing the impact of measures adopted to reduce air pollution, particularly in large Polish cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobilizing industry and transforming industrial sectors to a circular economy (CE) is one of the key areas of activities in the European Green Deal (EGD)—the newest strategy of economic growth in European Union (EU). In the CE, the raw materials that can be recovered from various waste streams play a key role, therefore, recommendations for their management were developed, both at the European and national level. In Poland, the raw material recovery sector is one of the strategic sectors (key industries) described in several documents determining the further directions of economic growth in the country. This paper presents the revision of these documents and guidelines for the implementation of the CE in the raw material recovery sector. The scope of the paper also includes a description of the current state of the raw materials recovery sector and its return, supported by the analysis of drivers and barriers in its further development. In previous years, a dynamic development of the recovery industry was observed, followed by formation of new companies (dominated by medium-sized companies comprising ~50% of entities in the sector) and increasing amount of people employed (~70,700 people). A growing level of processing of secondary raw materials with the use of more and more innovative technologies has been observed, which could contribute to the improvement of the level of innovation of the national economy. There also some barriers, such as the lack of sufficiently developed industrial symbiosis (IS) and long-term support for the implementation of recovery technologies. The growing ecological awareness of society and enterprises themselves, as well as the growing belief in the importance of resource recovery for environmental protection, suggest the possibility of subsequent development of the raw materials recovery sector. Further actions in this field will be taken to strengthen the implementation of the CE in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses innovative activities, including renewable energy sources (RES) in the housing market, the motivations for their introduction, effectiveness, benefits, limitations and management—which are open and current problems of Polish and international sustainable construction. This problem is part of a research gap concerning, among others, the role of developers and entities responsible for introducing energy innovations into housing construction. The aim of the paper is to analyse innovations, with particular emphasis on RES, introduced by residential developers in Poland in the context of global trends. The work is based on the results of surveys conducted among developers of the primary housing market. The research of 130 questionnaires received from entities such as multi-storey buildings and multi-family houses in Poland, was carried out on a nationwide sample using the CATI Computer Assisted Telephone Interview method. The results of the survey research were summarized by setting research hypotheses, which were verified using the significance test based on the Laplace normal distribution. The research conducted has shown that residential developers in Poland point at, among others, competitive pressures, concern about the quality of products and services offered, increasing market share or satisfaction and increasing customer requirements. This clearly shows that the implementation of innovation is perceived through the prism of increasing competitiveness. Furthermore, developers operating in the more competitive markets—nationwide and on the market of the five largest Polish cities, usually larger companies, showed a greater willingness and even the need to introduce innovation in their activities. In the study, developers as one of the barriers of introducing innovations, apart from the lack of adequate support, mainly from public entities in the field of, inter alia, appropriate law favouring the implementation of innovations and financial support, indicate difficulties of the client's market manifested by the lack of knowledge and identification of needs in the field of innovation, and the lack of willingness to pay a higher price in regard to the product with higher innovation level. In the paper, the authors recommend developers, among others, to implement in the management process the identification of possible to implement innovations and the customers' needs in innovations with education in the field of possible innovations and its benefits. The article indicates the need to intensify the implementation of innovations in housing projects in order to increase competitiveness and to meet the European Union's requirement regarding the use of renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heating and cooling sectors contribute to approximately 50% of energy consumption in the European Union. Considering the fact that heating is mostly based on fossil fuels, it is then evident that its decarbonization is one of the crucial tasks for achieving climate change prevention goals. At the same time, electricity sectors across the globe are undergoing a rapid transformation in order to accommodate the growing capacities of non-dispatchable solar and wind generators. One of the proposed solutions to achieve heating sector decarbonization and non-dispatchable generators power system integration is sector coupling, where heat pumps are perceived as a perfect fit. Air source heat pumps enable a rapid improvement in local air quality by replacing conventional heating sources, but at the same time, they put additional stress on the power system. The emissions associated with heat pump operation are a combination of power system energy mix, weather conditions and heat pump technology. Taking the above into consideration, this paper presents an approach to estimate which of the mentioned factors has the highest impact on heat pump emissions. Due to low air quality during the heating season, undergoing a power system transformation (with a relatively low share of renewables) in a case study located in Poland is considered. The results of the conducted analysis revealed that for a scenario where an air-to-water (A/W) heat pump is supposed to cover space and domestic hot water load, its CO2 emissions are shaped by country-specific energy mix (55.2%), heat pump technology (coefficient of performance) (33.9%) and, to a lesser extent, by changing climate (10.9%). The outcome of this paper can be used by policy makers in designing decarbonization strategies and funding distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reviews the history and the direction of development for railway CCTV (Closed-Circuit TeleVision) systems. The authors described the CCTV system at PKP Polskie Linie Kolejowe S.A. and the associated network and server infrastructure. The authors proposed an operational model for a centralized CCTV system that assumes states of partial fitness, in accordance with the regulations of the national railway infrastructure administrator. The aim of the paper is to review, analyse, and evaluate the operational reliability of railroad video monitoring systems in relation to the assumptions of the national railroad infrastructure manager using an operational model. A unified system structure is presented in the article. The model was used as a base to calculate the probabilities for the system while staying in the assumed states. Calculations showed that a centralized CCTV system is characterized by high reliability and satisfies the expectations of PKP Polskie Linie Kolejowe S.A. in this respect. The obtained result of 99.88% probability of leaving the analysed video surveillance system in a fully operational condition within a year indicates a high level of security of the applied solutions in such a large system. The analysed system is one of the largest such solutions designed in the European Union and the largest in Poland, which is an important contribution to the development and implementation of such extensive video surveillance systems in the future. The research question is whether the extensive centralized railway CCTV systems will meet the requirements of PKP Polskie Linie Kolejowe S.A. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present the state of development of renewable energy sources (RES) in Poland in accordance with the obligations of European Union energy policy. The EU Member States are obliged to adopt different support mechanisms for the development of renewable energy sources, and in consequence to achieve their Directive's targets. Poland, being a Member State of the EU since 2004, has accepted a target of a 15% share of energy generated from renewable energy sources in final energy consumption, including 19.3% from renewable electricity until 2020. Due to the difficulties with target achievement, the authors found it reasonable to analyze the challenge of RES development in Poland. The article presents energy policy in the EU, as well as the review of measures implemented for renewable energy development. The current state of and perspectives on using renewable energy sources in Poland and in the EU are also depicted. In the article, the authors analyze the relation between reference prices at dedicated RES auctions in Poland and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). The paper also provides a description of the renewable energy sources' development in three areas: electricity, heat and transport biofuels. Its main content, though, refers to the generation of electricity from renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy sources are an alternative to traditional sources and are based on inexhaustible and environmentally friendly supply. Various controversies have been stirred up by the development of energy production from renewable sources, e.g., due to the high cost of these investments or carbon footprint at the production stage of renewable installations, or later in the disposal process. However, they seem to be gradually offset by the numerous benefits that outweigh the initial costs of their support. Therefore, it is not surprising that European Union (EU) countries are at the forefront of the transition to a low-emission economy. This is evidenced, e.g., by a 22% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in Member States, with gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 58% between 1990 and 2017. Nevertheless, the use of renewable energy sources such as sun, wind, water, etc. is much more expensive than burning fossil fuels. This argument of high investment costs can be decisive in decisions of both public debates and individual households. Therefore, education on renewable energy sources is needed to facilitate the process of transition to a zero-emission economy in the European Union countries. This education should, above all, be addressed to young people, who will be making these decisions in the future. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 will largely depend on the knowledge and awareness of young people. The aim of the paper is to diagnose the perception of the transition to a zero-carbon economy in the opinion of Polish schoolchildren. We put a particular emphasis on renewable energy sources as a key element shaping the security of the state in terms of sustainable ecology and friendly social development. We achieved the aim of the study through a research process with use of theoretical and empirical research methods. We analysed the literature on the subject and the current legal acts in the field of renewable energy sources. We also conducted a survey of high school students in Poland. The analysis of the research results allowed us to formulate recommendations on the possibility of shaping state security in the field of sustainable ecology and friendly social development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout the world, and especially in the European Union, numerous technologies for the thermal treatment of radioactive waste are available or being developed. These technologies can be applied to a large range of different radioactive waste streams, including non-standard types of waste that present specific waste management challenges. Thermal treatment can result in a significant reduction in volume and hazard, which are beneficial for safe storage and disposal. Thermal treatment also removes organic material that can form complexing agents and increase the mobility of radionuclides in the landfill. In the paper, basic thermal techniques are presented, and some examples of the installations are shown. Common knowledge of these methods may result in an increased public acceptance of nuclear energy in a country just introducing it, as Poland is. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In December 2019, the European Commission unveiled an ambitious project, the European Green Deal, which aims to lead the European Union to climate neutrality by 2050. This is a significant challenge for all EU countries, and especially for Poland. The role of hydrogen in the processes of decarbonization of the economy and transport is being discussed in many countries around the world to find rational solutions to this difficult and complex problem. There is an ongoing discussion about the hydrogen economy, which covers the production of hydrogen, its storage, transport, and conversion to the desired forms of energy, primarily electricity, mechanical energy, and new fuels. The development of the hydrogen economy can significantly support the achievement of climate neutrality. The belief that hydrogen plays an important role in the transformation of the energy sector is widespread. There are many technical and economic challenges, as well as legal and logistical barriers to deal with in the transition process. The development of hydrogen technologies and a global sustainable energy system that uses hydrogen offers a real opportunity to solve the challenges facing the global energy industry: meeting the need for clean fuels, increasing the efficiency of fuel and energy production, and significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The paper provides an in-depth analysis of the Polish Hydrogen Strategy, a document that sets out the directions for the development of hydrogen use (competences and technologies) in the energy, transport, and industrial sectors. This analysis is presented against the background of the European Commission's document 'A Hydrogen Strategy for a Climate-Neutral Europe'. The draft project presented is a good basis for further discussion on the directions of development of the Polish economy. The Polish Hydrogen Strategy, although it was created later than the EU document, does not fully follow its guidelines. The directions for further work on the hydrogen strategy are indicated so that its final version can become a driving force for the development of the country's economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy issues are multifaceted and are not limited to power plants, biogas plants or transmission lines. They also include the production, usage and utilisation of batteries and accumulators, which are increasingly valuable due to, among other things, the decision to develop the production of electric cars. This article creates new ground by analysing the European Union management system of batteries and accumulators in the cause–effect context. This paper's insights have emerged iteratively based on the theory reviewed and the empirical case—a deep analysis of the Polish management system of batteries and accumulators. The findings show that the public institutions in the analysed European Union Member State—Poland—were not ready to create a fully coherent and effective oversight system on managing batteries and accumulators. It may limit the reliability of the European Union's reporting on battery and accumulator management, which is a part of the European energy policy. The findings make two main contributions: first, they contribute to developing a theory of energy resource management; second, this article contributes to a further contextual diagnosis of the comprehensive management system of waste batteries and accumulators, which is an important part of the European Battery Alliance. Moreover, the avenues for further research emerged from the present study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is the first country-specific analysis of the market-driven Smart Metering innovation system, covering technologies, actors, and policies. It provides new insights on the key enablers and barriers in the rollout of electricity Smart Meters (SMs) without binding regulatory mandate. The presented research is based on the Technology Innovation System (TIS) analysis for Poland, where an obligation scheme for the rolling out of SMs has been introduced very recently. Still, the number of SMs installed places the country in the top 10 Member States of the European Union. The implementation of SMs is progressing in a complex, multi-actor innovation system, shaped by the leading role of Distribution System Operators (DSOs). The article analyses the key elements of the SM innovation system (technologies and infrastructures, actors and networks, institutions and policies) and characterizes their interaction based on desk research and a critical assessment of regulations, statistics, and literature. The major enablers of the rollout are DSOs expectations of benefits, which have been instigated by the market regulator's benevolence in tariffs approval. On the other hand, the major barriers are delayed and incomplete public policy instruments. Results of the study can inform the development of other market-driven SM deployments around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of the Green Deal in 2019 by the European Commission poses a significant challenge for EU member states whose power generation is based primarily on fossil fuels. In Poland, nearly 80% of the electricity is produced from fossil fuels. This paper presents an analysis of the risks related to the delays in the accomplishment of investment programs in the Polish power industry. Three scenarios were prepared for balancing the deficiency of about 3 GW of power and 20 TWh of electricity in the national power grid in the years 2031–2040, which may emerge as a result of the delayed accomplishment of investment programs, particularly in nuclear energy. The first scenario presents a variant entailing the rapid phasing out of coal and the replacement of the decommissioned power units with new gas-powered units, where the missing power volume would be partially balanced by import, and partially through gas-based production in the new power units. The second scenario assumes that the missing power would be balanced by retaining the existing, older coal-powered units, whereas the required electricity would be compensated by import. The third scenario involves the production of the missing volume of electricity using coal with CO2 capture in existing or new coal-powered units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eliminating environmental and air pollution is one of the European Union's priority actions in the field of transport. Poland, as a member of the European Community, is also actively involved in these activities. The flagship project, the implementation of which is expected to bring tangible effects in this respect, is the "Sustainable Transport Development Strategy until 2030". It states that in 2030 there should be 600,000 BEVs (battery electric vehicles) on Polish roads. At present, the share of such vehicles in the automotive market in Poland is small, which is a result of a number of barriers. One of them, very important considering the preferences of Poles, is the cost of buying such a car, which is currently at least 40% higher than its counterpart with a combustion engine. Meanwhile, popularizers of electric cars believe that the cost of buying such a vehicle is offset by the subsequent costs associated with its operation. Hence, this paper determines and then compares the total purchase and operating costs of cars of the same make, same model, differing in the source of propulsion, to category M1. Cars in this category represent the largest share of the automotive market in Poland—over 75%. The main objective of the analysis conducted was to determine if a current electric passenger vehicle can be competitive with an internal combustion car in everyday use. Therefore, a relationship was developed to calculate the total cost of ownership, which takes into account all the key criteria from the point of view of private vehicle use. The utilitarian value of this research may be supported by the fact that the example of Poland and its problems concerning the issue in question may serve as a source of preliminary analysis for other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, Poland has become a leading producer of sturgeon meat and caviar in Europe and is one of the largest in the world. The growing importance of this branch of aquaculture means that diseases of these fish, especially viral ones, are becoming the object of interest for ichthyopathologists. In recent years, there have been increasing reports of health problems in the dynamically developing sturgeon farming. The greatest risk appears to be emerging infectious diseases that are caused by viruses and that can become a serious threat to the development of the aquaculture industry and the success of sturgeon restitution programs undertaken in many European countries, including Poland. In this paper, an attempt was made to determine the spread of the two most important groups of viruses in Polish sturgeon farming: These include the herpesviruses and sturgeon nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (sNCLDV), in particular, mimiviruses. In the years 2016–2020, 136 samples from nine farms were collected and tested by using the WSSK-1 cell line, PCR and Real Time PCR methods. All results were negative for herpesviruses. Out of the samples, 26% of the samples have been tested positive for mimiviruses. Sanger sequencing of mimiviruses demonstrated their affiliation with AciV-E. The sequence characterization confirmed the presence of both V1 and V2 lineages in Polish fish facilities, but variant V2 seems to be more widespread, as is observed in other European countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The building sector is one of the most critical branches of the economy influencing global warming today. Following the European Union's Construction Products Regulation (CPR), the sustainable use of natural resources in construction is one of the seven basic buildings' requirements. However, due to the lack of provisions in this regard, construction products are not yet subject to mandatory assessment and verification of the constancy of performance in this area. The paper presents the research results with the participation of 842 respondents who are investors, architects, contractors, and sellers of building materials. The analysis of their perceptions of issues related to the term sustainable development and knowledge of selected documents functioning in construction is presented. The share of people who correctly assigned the term sustainable development to equal treatment of environmental protection, economic development, and social development ranged between 52.5% and 65.7%. Knowledge of people associated with construction about the role of the declaration of performance (DoP) of construction products is high (from 73.9% to 99.4% correct answers). For Environmental Product Declaration (EPD), lower knowledge of this document's role was noted, from 24.1% to 56.5% of correct answers. The obtained results indicate the need for further education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reservoirs are formed through the artificial damming of a river valley. Reservoirs, among others, capture polluted load transported by the tributaries in the form of suspended and dissolved sediments and substances. Therefore, reservoirs are treated in the European Union (EU) as "artificial" or "heavily modified" surface water bodies. The reservoirs' pollutant load depends to a large extent on the degree of anthropogenic impact in the respective river catchment area. The purpose of this paper is to assess the mutual relation between the catchment area and the reservoirs. In particular, we focus on the effects of certain land use/land cover on reservoirs' water quality. For this study, we selected twenty Polish reservoirs for an in-depth analysis using 2018 CORINE Land Cover data. This analysis allowed the identification of the main triggering factors in terms of water quality of the respective reservoirs. Moreover, our assessment clearly shows that water quality of the analysed dam reservoirs is directly affected by the composition of land use/land cover, both of the entire total reservoir catchment areas and the directly into the reservoir draining sub-catchment areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main goal of the paper is to verify the impact of the absorption of European Union (EU) grants on land cover changes in Polish municipalities in the years 2012–2018. The selection of the research area was justified by the fact that Poland is the largest and significantly spatially differentiated transition economy in Central-Eastern Europe, recognised as a substantial beneficiary of EU accession in 2004. The time range of analysis was set as the result of a comparison of data availability in Corine Land Cover (CLC) and Statistics Poland. The CLC dataset referring to land cover and land use changes between 2012 and 2018 was used. The focus on modifications taking place within one of the main land cover groups at level 3 of detail was applied in this research. These changes were analysed as percentages referring to the area of the municipality and to the total area of changes in the investigated period. Two categories of EU grants were considered: total and infrastructural (granted under EU Operational Programme "Infrastructure and Environment"). Moreover, some control economic, social, demographic, institutional, infrastructural, and environmental variables were applied to better explain land cover changes. Moran's local statistic was employed to detect spatial hot-spots of EU grants absorption, as well as hot-spots of land cover changes. Then, a collection of various variables related to determinants of land cover changes was set. Economic factors, including EU grants absorption, as well as factors related to accessibility, agrarian structure, demography, environment, and spatial planning were investigated. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to convert the set of all considered variables into a set of few uncorrelated predictors. Finally, Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) was applied to describe the spatially varied impact of investigated determinants, including EU grants, represented by estimated principal components on land cover changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal waste, including chicken manure, is a category of biomass considered for application in the energy industry. Poland is leading poultry producer in Europe, with a chicken population assessed at over 176 million animals. This paper aims to determine the theoretical and technical energy potential of chicken manure in Poland. The volume of chicken manure was assessed as 4.49 million tons per year considering three particular poultry rearing systems. The physicochemical properties of examined manure specimens indicate considerable conformity with the data reported in the literature. The results of proximate and ultimate analyses confirm a considerable effect of the rearing system on the energy parameters of the manure. The heating value of the chicken manure was calculated for the high moisture material in the condition as received from the farms. The value of annual theoretical energy potential in Poland was found to be equal to around 40.38 PJ. Annual technical potential of chicken biomass determined for four different energy conversion paths occurred significantly smaller then theoretical and has the value from 9.01 PJ to 27.3 PJ. The bigger energy degradation was found for heat and electricity production via anaerobic digestion path, while fluidized bed combustion occurred the most efficient scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]