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The aim of the paper was to identify which European capitals are sustainable and smart, why, and what influences the ranking. The main research hypothesis was to indicate that cities in the 'old' E.U. countries (richer and with higher levels of economic development) are more sustainable and smart. Furthermore, sustainable smart cities, by definition, through the use of advanced and modern management tools and technological support, should contribute to community resilience. Sustainable energy plays a significant role in the measurement system. The study's results showed the differences that exist across countries, as well as the leaders in each smart category and area. This is interesting and new; from a research point of view, there has been no study based on OECD research and data confronting and correlating the range of data with indicators found in the literature. The study results show that the concept of a smart city is comprehensive and that it is necessary to analyze in depth the various sub-categories included in the measurement and assessment of smartness offered by different indicators. This is because it turns out that an overall score and ranking do not always mean that a city is smart in every area and every element included in smart. Statistical methods and literature analysis are used for the study. The results represent a novel development and contribution to the science discipline and can be the basis for further scientific exploration in this area. The research gap and challenge indicate whether there is a link and correlation between the use of sustainable energy in E.U. countries and the implementation of smart concepts in European capitals in the context of the division into 'new' and 'old' E.U. capitals. An important element is the verification of the thesis that 'old' capitals are more advanced in the implementation of smart cities and make greater use of sustainable energy to meet social and economic needs. The thesis has been partly falsified and confirmed negatively; the results are not obvious. It means that the 'new' E.U. countries are very skillful in using financial, organizational, and common development policy opportunities to make their cities modern, intelligent, and friendly to their inhabitants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus of this paper is the relationship between sustainable energy sources and financial development. The main research hypothesis assumes a positive link between these areas, with inevitable differences across countries and business sectors. The following research questions were asked: Is the impact of financial development on sustainable energy resources the same in different EU countries advanced in green transition processes? How is transition towards renewable energy sources progressing in different economic sectors? Does financial development influence sectoral transition in particular countries? This study uses the TOPSIS method and 25 variables for EU countries from 2013 to 2021. Key findings reveal that the link between sustainable energy sources and financial development varies across EU countries, country size affects energy autonomy, and the transition also differs by business sector. Surprisingly, higher financial development correlates with less progress in sustainable energy initiatives. The results of our research may be useful for government decision-makers in the process of designing and controlling the country's transition to sustainable energy. The original contribution of the study is expressed in its the diagnosis of the relationship between financial development and sustainable energy sources, while most studies have focused on the relationship between the energy market and financial development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To reach climate neutrality by 2050, a goal that the European Union set itself, it is necessary to change and modify the whole EU's energy system through deep decarbonization and reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions. The study presents a current insight into the global energy-transition pathway based on the hydrogen energy industry chain. The paper provides a critical analysis of the role of clean hydrogen based on renewable energy sources (green hydrogen) and fossil-fuels-based hydrogen (blue hydrogen) in the development of a new hydrogen-based economy and the reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions. The actual status, costs, future directions, and recommendations for low-carbon hydrogen development and commercial deployment are addressed. Additionally, the integration of hydrogen production with CCUS technologies is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green transition is a challenge for the Polish economy and energy sector. In this paper, the expert method of analysis was applied and findings revealed that the challenges and prerequisites for an effective transformation of the power sector mainly include technical, technological and organizational issues of energy production and use. The provision of electricity at competitive prices and with a low carbon footprint, for individual consumers and industry, is a prerequisite for maintaining the well-being of the population and ensuring the competitiveness of domestically produced goods. The ambitious climate policy goals of the European Union require immediate action and call for radical changes in the Polish energy sector; in the coming years, it must drastically reduce the amount of energy produced from fossil fuels and replace it with so-called green energy from renewable sources. The main purpose of this article was to highlight the need to modify Poland's energy policy until 2040 in order to make it more consistent with the ambitious climate goals of the European Union. This article also shows that Poland's energy transition must include a shift from fossil fuels to renewables, while ensuring that energy security is stabilized by the current energy and generation resources. To this end, we discuss the issues of creating reserves in the national energy system for the entire period of Poland's energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global renewable energy landscape is changing rapidly. Green energies reduce greenhouse gas emissions, diversify the energy supply, and lower dependence on volatile and uncertain fossil fuel markets. The future looks promising for green energy sources, which are taking on an increasingly important role, especially in the current context, as governments are trying to identify viable solutions to the energy crisis and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Worldwide, there is a growing interest in and support for green energy sources, a factor that could help accelerate the current energy transition. Despite these positive developments, much remains to be done globally to make the energy transition a reality. In this respect, the European Union member states have committed to a wide neutrality target by establishing an increase in the total share of energy from renewable sources to 55% (by 2030) and, at the same time, reducing the net greenhouse gas effect emissions by at least 55% until 2030 to reach the neutrality target by 2050. Green energy sources are essential for long-term efforts to mitigate climate change and will play an important role in improving energy security and accessibility. The efforts of every country to strengthen the energy sector through the development of green energies will reduce geopolitical risks and disproportionate external costs for society. The large-scale use of green energies will contribute to sustainable development. The objective of our research is to review the literature on green energy in the context of sustainable development by analyzing research conducted by various authors and international organizations on these topics. The period considered for this study is 2011–2020. Our research focused on the EU 27, but the review also took into account the results obtained by other countries worldwide, such as China, the USA, Norway, and Iceland. The main research method used was the analysis of scientific papers, studies developed by international organizations, and a wide set of agreements and political commitments assumed by different states for developing green energy as a solution for sustainable development. The obtained results show an interesting international debate about green energies and how they can contribute to sustainable development. This paper's results also show that in 2019 at the global level, low-carbon energy sources, including nuclear power and renewable energy, accounted for 15.7% of primary energy (solar, wind, hydropower, bioenergy, geothermal and wave and tidal), while in 2021, for the EU 27, the share of energy from renewable sources reached 22%. According to international statistics, more than 90% of the governments of many countries are making investments to efficiently capitalize on green energy sources and to design new models of sustainable economic and social development, in order to lower pollution levels, reduce the dependence on fossil fuel imports and limit the climate change impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes examples of energy crops that are profitable to burn, and whose cultivation is not complicated or expensive. Rapid growth of biomass, especially the green mass of energy crops, is indicated, which means that, in relation to fossil fuels, energy crops are considered renewable raw materials. An assessment of Polish non-food energy agriculture was conducted in the context of the prospects of a renewable energy source, namely, biomass. Recommendations for crop cultivation, the size of possible yields and the most important parameters of the obtained biomass, which have the greatest impact on the suitability of energy use, are presented. Materials of biological origin for combustion are divided into three groups: wood waste, by-products and plant products for the energy industry. It is indicated that 2 tons (Mg) of dry wood or straw is energetically equivalent to 1 Mg of coal, and 1 m3 of biogas is energetically equivalent to 1 kg of Polish coal. A novelty of this article is the interpretation of obtaining primary energy, including energy from renewable sources, in the European Union and Poland, taking into account the production of wood waste, straw, cereals and energy crops. The mechanism of the impact of the production parameters of energy crops was revealed during the prepared analysis of the prospects of Polish energy agriculture. Additionally, we conducted an analysis of the potential of biomass as a source of energy in the context of: obtaining primary energy, including energy from renewable sources, in the European Union and Poland; the number of biogas plants in Poland; and the area of agricultural land that is potentially useful for the cultivation of energy crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate and energy policies are the key areas of the European Union's development aspirations in the international arena. The European Green Deal sets ambitious new goals in this respect, emphasizing clean energy. The development of the energy sector, relying chiefly on renewable sources, is one of the conditions for the EU to transition to energies that do not produce waste that pollutes or is otherwise harmful to the Earth and human health. This paper assesses the development of renewable sources of energy in the EU and identifies challenges to the realization of the EU's energy priorities. An analysis of renewable sources of energy in the EU in 2012 and 2020 is the prime method. The generation of primary energy from renewable sources, the share of energy from renewable sources in the final energy consumption, the structure of energy generation from renewable sources, and the share of energy from renewable sources in the energy used by the transport sector are discussed. Secondary data are employed, made available by Eurostat and Statistics Poland. To reach the objective of the study, Z. Hellwig's taxonomic method is applied to assess the development of renewable energy sources (RES). Cluster analysis (Ward's agglomerative clustering method) is additionally used for separation of objects and member states that are similar with regard to the phenomenon reviewed. Particular attention is paid to the challenges that societies and economies face in view of the assumptions of the EU's new Green Deal, which envisages a balancing of CO2 emissions and absorption. This analysis discovers varied progress on the development of RES in the member states, posing a threat to the European community's aspirations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biofuels are becoming more important in the renewable energy sources mix. Liquid biofuels are products of agriculture. Bioethanol can be prepared from corn, beetroot and other plants. Biodiesel is mainly made from rapeseed. This paper presents information about biodiesel development in Poland, as well as some background information about its development in the European Union (EU). We analyzed the data about biofuels in the literature, and provide statistical data about liquid biofuel in Poland and other countries of the EU. The aim of the study is to assess the viability of liquid biofuel development in Poland. The base for biodiesel production in Poland and the EU is rapeseed. The production yields and sown area of rapeseed increased in Poland from 2005–2020. This was due to integration and European Union policies which aim to supply clean energy. The energy mix in Poland differs from that of the EU. Solid biofuels have made up the biggest share of renewable energy sources in Poland (73.4%) and the EU (40.1%). Poland has smaller share of wind energy, biogas, heat pump, water energy, solar anergy, municipal waste and geothermal energy in its renewable energy sources compared to the rest of the EU. Only with solid and liquid biofuels is the share of renewable energy sources larger in Poland compared to the EU averages. Poland has decreased its share of solid biofuels and water energy among its renewable energy sources, while other sources have increased. Poland is investing to increase its renewable energy sources. To analyze the opportunities for biodiesel production in Poland, we used the scenario method of analysis. We outlined three scenarios. The first is increasing the production of biodiesel by 3% each year for the next three years. The second is production remains unchanged, i.e., at the 2020 level. The last scenario is decreasing production by 3% each year. According to the first scenario, the total demand for rapeseed for energy and food purposes will be 375 thousand tons in 2025. Such a scenario is very likely to occur because of the growing demand for biodiesel and edible oil. The current situation with Ukraine and the Russian Federation will create an increase in demand for rapeseed, leading to higher prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "Clean Energy for all Europeans" package highlights the need to create a resilient critical energy infrastructure in the European Union. Resilience is an emerging term to describe the energy system's ability to withstand shocks caused by natural hazards, technical accidents, or intentional threats. In this paper, a framework to assess the resilience of energy systems using quantitative indicators is presented. Two main groups of resilience indicators are proposed that depend on what is being measured within the energy system: capacity (attribute-based) indicators or performance in the presence of disruption (performance-based) indicators. This study concentrates on the first resilience phase, when the energy system has to absorb the impact of the shock. The approach considers various disruptions (both internal and external) as triggering events. There is a particular focus on future shocks affecting the prospective energy system, which will have changed with respect to the current one. The future foresight capabilities and potential of the selected resilience indicators are demonstrated using calculations for the Lithuanian energy system. The results revealed that the most important factors that impact energy system resilience are a rich electricity production mix and the diversification of both supply and production in the prospective energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union (EU) has developed important efforts in enacting various clean energy policies in order to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the last decades. Both supply-side and demand-side changes are required in the energy systems in the period of 2020–2030 and going towards 2050. In this context, a better understanding of the effects of these specific clean energy actions on reducing GHG emissions may be especially of interest for allowing policymakers to know the strengths and weaknesses of various climate-related power sector policies. This paper adds to the literature by presenting the effects of both supply-side and demand-side policies and empirical evidence of the impact of these policies on the reduction in carbon emissions. This analysis was done by means of a panel data set and several regression models that contribute to explaining the link between clean energy policies applied in the EU and carbon emissions over the period of 2000–2019. The results show that while supply-side policies have shown a positive and effective impact on the reduction in GHG emissions, on the demand side, more aggressive policy efforts are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric Vehicles (EVs) will be a key component of sustainable e-transportation systems. It is important to provide a charging infrastructure for EVs. EVs are "zero" polluting and highly efficient, but these qualities are valid only if the EV is supplied from renewable energy sources (RES). In urban areas, there is a lot of unused space such as roofs of residential and enterprise buildings, roofs of parking lots, building facades, etc. In cities, the PV and small wind turbines RES should be able to supply EVs with clean energy. Such a solution has many advantages. In an EU-financed research project, the team developed a solution for a Residential Charging Station (RCS), the design solution being implemented with the equipment available on the market. In this paper, the design considerations and some challenges raised by it are presented. Improvements of the existing equipment to better suit future needs are further discussed. The proposed solution solves the matter optimally and the implementing it will offer future Smart Cities an RCS with public access with several useful properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the Great Recession of 2008, there was a strong commitment from several international institutions and forums to improve wellbeing economics, with a switch towards satisfaction and sustainability in people–planet–profit relations. The initiative of the European Union is the Green Deal, which is similar to the UN SGD agenda for Horizon 2030. It is the common political economy plan for the Multiannual Financial Framework, 2021–2027. This project intends, at the same time, to stop climate change and to promote the people's wellness within healthy organizations and smart cities with access to cheap and clean energy. However, there is a risk for the success of this aim: the Jevons paradox. In this paper, we make a thorough revision of the literature on the Jevons Paradox, which implies that energy efficiency leads to higher levels of consumption of energy and to a bigger hazard of climate change and environmental degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today the world's largest cruise ships can take on board more than 6000 passengers and almost 3000 crew members. Managing a significant number of people and all equipment and operations on ships requires the delivery of tens of thousands of kilowatts, which poses a huge challenge for both cruise ship builders and ports supporting these ships as well as for ship owners themselves, as the costs involved represent the largest share in the structure of expenditure in cruise shipping companies. In recent years, various communities and institutions, including the International Maritime Organisation and the European Union, exert pressure on cruise ship owners to use green renewable energy solutions. For these reasons, cruise ship owners are constantly looking for cost-effective and environmentally responsible solutions regarding new energy sources for ships. The aim of this paper is to identify modern solutions applied on cruise ships in the field of energy generation and to indicate benefits for the environment and ship owners in this respect. The following research questions were formulated: (1) What factors force cruise ship owners to introduce modern energy policy solutions? (2) What kind of green energy solutions are currently used on cruise ships? (3) What kind of renewable energy solutions do cruise ship owners use to reduce energy consumption on board cruise ships? The research was conducted by applying a few research methods, i.e., desk research method and exploration method, critical and comparative analysis, and also inductive and deductive reasoning. The results of this research can provide an interesting source of information for cruise ship owners, cruise seaport authorities, and shipyards involved in the construction of new vessels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union Green Deal aims at curbing greenhouse gas emissions and introducing clean energy production. But to achieve energy efficiency, the opportunity cost of different energies must be assessed. In this article, two different energy self-sufficient systems for wastewater treatment are compared. On the one hand, high-rate algal ponds system (HRAP) is considered; on the other hand, a conventional activated sludge system (AS) which uses photovoltaic power (PV) is studied. The paper offers a viability analysis of both systems based on the capacity to satisfy their energetic consumption. This viability analysis, along with the opportunity cost study, will be used in the article to compare these two projects devoted to the treatment of wastewater. In order to assess viability, the probability of not achieving the energy consumption threshold at least one day is studied. The results point that the AS+PV system self-sufficiency is achieved with much lesser land requirements than the HRAP system (for the former, less than 6500 m2, for the latter 40,000 m2). However, the important AS capital cost makes still the HRAP system more economic, although storage provides a great advantage for using the AS+PV in locations where a lot of irradiance is available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One important goal of the climate commitment in the European Union (EU) is to reduce primary energy demand in the transport sector and increase the use of renewables, since around 33% of primary energy is consumed in this sector. Therefore, the EU ordered its member states to raise the number of electric vehicles (EVs) within Europe. Consequently, the energy demand for electricity will rise as a function of the number of EVs. To avoid local grid overload and guarantee a higher percentage of clean energy, EV charging stations can be supported by a combined system of grid-connected photovoltaic modules and battery storage. In this paper, the focus lies on the feasibility and economic aspects of such systems. To provide an overview of the different e-charging station combinations, a support tool was modelled and developed, making it possible to size and manage EVs charging stations with only a few input parameters. Thanks to its easy handling, the tool suits a wide spectrum of users. Due to enhanced optional settings, this tool is suitable for detailed input parameters for professionals as well. Input categories are basically divided into the photovoltaic (PV) system, battery storage, the charging station itself, and investment analysis. The tool supports decisions for solar charging stations designed for different parking locations like offices, schools, and public and private places. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a newly built model used to simulate the European Union (EU) internal electricity market and assess market reform policies. The model performs an hourly simulation of all stages of the wholesale markets at a Pan-European scale, covering the sequence of day-ahead, intra-day, and balancing/reserve auctions. The model includes market coupling in all market stages, estimates scarcity bidding by generators endogenously, and determines electricity trade as a flow-based allocation of interconnections via the market auctions implicitly. The model solves a unit-commitment program, formulated as a mixed-integer optimisation problem, under demand and generation constraints, interconnection possibilities, technical restrictions of the cyclic operation of power plants, and the provision of ancillary services. The novelty of this approach is the inclusion of distortions in all stages of the markets to evaluate the impacts of their removal, and the operation of the markets in a segmented versus an integrated manner in the EU. The model calculates revenues and costs per power plant in the EU on a country basis and the value of cross-border flows. The model evaluated market reform measures, including the abolishment of priority dispatch of renewable energy plants, the establishment of flow-based allocation of interconnectors without NTC limitations, the activation of demand response, and the market coupling in intra-day markets. The model application has been in the context of the electricity market design initiative included in the "Clean Energy for all Europeans" policy package proposed by the European Commission in 2016. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the findings of the economic studies on the implications of industrialization in the case of growing economies, this study aims to present the economic factors that are at the basis of the development of circular economy at the European Union level. Starting with the model of economic growth based on the recycling rate of municipal waste, human capital, productivity of the resources, and green energy use, three statistical hypotheses were validated through a panel data model with the use of EViews 10 statistical software. The analysis was conducted for 27 European Union countries during the time frame 2008–2017. The paper highlights that the circular economy model is determined by resource productivity, labor employed in environmental protection, recycling rate of municipal waste, and renewable energy use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]