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Five different deacidifying solutions were tested on iron-gall inks and their effect was assessed by means of colorimetry and measurements of pH values. It was concluded that borax had the least damaging effect on the ink. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the Vichy Regime, beginning in July 1940, the whole school system, from preschool to university, had a great responsibility in the decline of patriotism justifying the rapid defeat in the face of the German armed forces. As Marshal Petain pointed out in his 20 June 1940 speech: "Since the Victory, a spirit of pleasure prevailed over the spirit of sacrifice. People claimed more than they served. Efforts were saved, and people nowadays have been living in despair." The national Revolution the Regime brought about had to help revive the true values of the Nation, founding its activities on Work, Family and Homeland. Therefore, the "undesirables" (Jews, Freemasons, Communists, ...) had to be rejected from the school system and the dissemination of national values had to prevail. As Serge Jeanneret, one of the Marshal's trustees, noted: "Making the Revolution without Schools is as useful as a sand building" (extracted from Serge Jeanneret, La vérité sur les instituteurs [The Truth about Teachers], Paris, Flammarion, 1941, p. 173). From that point of view, all the educational ministers belonging to the Vichy Regime tried to reform the school system – its organisation, its programmes and staff – in order to train a "newman", even if they sometimes fed projects launched during the interwar period. The Communist teachers and the Freemasons were expelled from schools because the 13 August 1940 Law prohibited them from working in the civil service. Registration as not belonging to secret societies was required of the educational staff. The first Jewish status (3 October 1940), then the second (2 June 1941), excluded Jews from the school system. The Act proclaimed on 21 June 1941 introduced a numerus clausus for the Jews (3%) in universities. The 8 September 1940 Act closed teacher training schools for primary staff, which were replaced by a new training organisation. The competitive examination laureates were integrated into secondary schools, passed the baccalaureate and, for one year, they attended a vocational training institute and had to undergo four different practical trainings. They had a three-month period at the vocational institute, a three-month training period in primary schools, a three-month training period in an agricultural education school or a technical school and, for women, a three-month training period in a housecraft centre, and one month's training in a regional sport centre. The Vichy Regime and the Germans also forbade certain schoolbooks. Consequently, they modified the programmes to assert the stronger continuity of French History with Ancient times. This enabled a reduction of the revolutionary and Republican impact and promoted French geography and homeland. Pupils were invited to love their local and national fatherland. That sense of belonging could induce them to remain attached to their home. The veneration of the leader, the morals for duty and sacrifice, the symbol of eternal femininity serving the family were reasserted in the educational culture. At the same time, the Vichy Regime struggled with secularism and supported private schools, giving numerous grants to Catholic schools thanks to the Law of 2 November 1941. The Minister Jacques Chevalier, with the 6 December 1940 Act, restored duties to God in civic and moral instruction programmes for primary schools (those duties had been suppressed in 1923). The Ripert Act on 15 October 1940 allowed the local education city office to award grants to poor pupils who attended private schools. The Jacques Chevalier Act on 6 January 1941 allowed cities to finance equipment charges and operational costs concerning the private schools (and especially lighting, heating and lunchrooms). The 6 January 1941 Law, by welcoming God in schools and asserting that religious instruction could exceptionally be delivered by a priest in educational buildings, modified one fundamental pillar of the French Republican School. With the 10 March 1941 Law, Jérôme Carcopino, faced with such a great number of opponents, demanded that religious instruction became optional and was studied off school premises. he Vichy Regime also reformed school organisation. Jérôme Carcopino launched the main transformations with the 15 August 1941 Act. Higher Primary Schools became modern secondary schools and were linked to secondary education in the hope of weakening them. At the same time, the selection process was reinforced. Primary schooling was divided into two cycles. The first included a preparatory class (for children aged 6–7 years), an elementary class (7–9-year-olds) and a middle class (from 9- to 11-year-olds). At the end of the first cycle, a diploma for preparatory primary studies was created and prescribed as compulsory if pupils intended to go further in public schooling (i.e. additional classes, primary or secondary high schools); but pupils who succeeded in the scholarship examination were exempted from the diploma. The second cycle (three years from age 11 to age 14) ended with the Primary Certificate. In secondary education, Jérôme Carcopino increased selection and, according to the 15 August 1941 Decree, the principle of free access was suppressed for pupils older than 14 years of age. This multidimensional reform had to face two major obstacles that considerably reduced its implementation. First, the war years were not favourable to educational change – the country was partly and afterwards totally occupied after November 1942. German troops occupied a majority of schools. Shortages were numerous and many teachers were imprisoned in Germany. Labour requisitioning progressively affected the older pupils, mainly student and fresh teachers. The Vichy Regime, after the succession principle failed – the principle was established on 22 June 1942 and proposed that one prisoner came back to France and was traded for three skilled workers sent to Germany – decided, according to the 4 September 1942 Law, to organise forced conscription for male workers (from 18 to 50 years old) and for unmarried women (from 21 to 35 years old). The constraint was then accentuated with the 16 February 1943 Law implementing Mandatory Work Service – Service du Travail Obligatoire STO – for young adults (aged 20–21 and 22-year-old men). All these young men had to be registered and the process made people-requisitioning easier. Therefore, they could definitely be sent to Germany. Second, there was a sort of revolt by the educational staff, who were deeply attached to the Republican values and the Jules Ferry conception of school. Indeed, they strove to reduce the scope of the legislation, rejecting the political choices of the Vichy Regime and also collaboration. If teachers, students and older pupils joined the collaborator parties, most of them remained prudent and followed as little as possible the Vichy Regime's instructions. They commemorated forbidden celebrations and listened to BBC radio. A minority joined the Resistance fighters and got involved in the dissemination of tracts and of clandestine papers. They also committed to information networks, escape organisations or fights against the occupiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the French defeat in May-June 1940, Japan invaded Indochina, a French colony. Then, many women and men decided to create some circuits to resist this occupation. Their mission dealt with the Japanese soldiers in the peninsula, with whom Admiral Decoux's General Government wanted to maintain a modus vivendi in the name of Vichy. The time constraints were different for these groups than for their metropolitan counterparts: they kept on fighting until their destruction on 9 March 1945 and the Japanese overthrow of the peninsula. Although Vichy's implication in Indochina is well known, the anti-Japanese resistance groups from this region and their participation in the Allied victory in and out of mainland France have not been studied recently. This paper intends to focus on the dynamics of these circuits' interventions during their fight in Indochina. How did they maintain contact with Free French Forces despite their geographical isolation? What was their implication in the final victory against the Japanese forces? As with the war itself, Resistance was an international phenomenon which was not limited to European borders but spread throughout the world through contacts with the Allied secret services. This paper will study the construction and materiality of these contacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, subject-matter teachers are commonplace in post-elementary schools. Teachers' specialisation appears as a key characteristic of secondary schools as opposed to the polyvalence of primary school teachers. Historians have already studied the long process of teachers' specialisation, which started, in France as in Prussia (for example), at the beginning of the nineteenth century and developed alongside secondary school modernisation. Those works have usually focused on professional aspects: the structuration of professional groups thanks to the unification of training and recruiting processes, the organisation of teachers within subject-matter associations etc. However, they have not paid much attention to the resistance opposed by other forms of pedagogical organisation, as if polyvalence were were just a backward anomaly, a backward anomaly, doomed to disappear. This paper seeks to shed new light on this question using a comparison between the different forms of post-elementary schooling that existed at the same time in France between the last third of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth, when the slow growth of post-elementary schooling was mainly due to the success of subaltern institutions. In those institutions, dedicated to technical education, girls' secondary education, or upper-lower classes' education ("primaire supérieur", "secondaire special"), different kinds of polyvalence or bivalence were experienced in the classrooms. At the same time, specialisation was triumphing in classical secondary education. Why, how and to what extent did specialisation eventually impose itself in these different institutions? To address this question, two types of material are used. On the one hand, the question is studied on a national level, analysing both the legislation and the controversies it arouses in pedagogical and professional reviews. On the other hand, these views and theories are confronted with a prosopography of post-elementary school teachers in one department, Eure-et-Loir, which offers several forms of post-elementary institutions. This question is addressed focusing on literary disciplines (philosophy, French, Latin, Greek, modern languages and history and geography). By narrowing the scope, the intellectual and cultural stakes of the various pedagogical organisations that were implemented or advocated may more easily be grasped. The first part of the article examines the most common (though relatively untested) hypothesis: there was just one strategy for those who advocated the promotion of subaltern types of post-elementary schooling as part of a democratisation process, and this strategy was reproducing the model of the elite institution, secondary classical education, including its pedagogical organisation, starting with subject-matter teachers. The chronology of the changes, the content of the debates, as well as a comparative inquiry into teachers' remuneration induces us to discard this hypothesis as insufficient if not irrelevant. For girls' secondary education, a trade-off may be observed between equalisation (of salaries, rights etc.) and pedagogical alignment. For the other institutions, there was no lack of advocates for the specificity of the pedagogy or of the institution; however, specialisation was usually considered a process that could ameliorate the quality of teaching in these institutions without renouncing its specificity. In fact, in the period under study, the louder advocates for less specialised teachers came from secondary classical education itself: the specialisation process as well as the fragmentation of the class schedule had pedagogic inconveniences, abundantly noticed and commented on by subject-matter teachers themselves. In the second part, these critics and the two main alternatives suggested by the teachers are examined. The first is linked with the Progressive Education movement ("Education nouvelle" in French). The École des Roches, a private institution, tested an original organisation that combined the tradition of the humanities with the modern characteristic of "Éducation nouvelle": there was only one teacher for history, geography, French, Latin and Greek. The teacher was thus enabled to practise a pedagogy of interest, as advocated by Ovide Decroly. The second alternative was advocated by some modern language teachers: if modern language teachers could teach French as well as a modern language, this pedagogic organisation could give strong unity to the until then defective "modern" curriculum (without Latin). The third part turns towards the effective organisation of post-elementary schools in Eure-et-Loir. To what extent were these alternative conceptions of pedagogical organisation implemented? The analysis of individual records of teachers suggests several results. First of all, in small institutions – be they classical secondary institutions like "collèges" or modern ones like "écoles primaires supérieures" – specialisation of services was a luxury that most teachers could not afford. Most of the time, they had to teach several subjects, even if they had been trained for just one. However, polyvalence was not used as an opportunity to make connections between the subjects. Class schedules rarely enabled teachers to use polyvalence as a way to teach several subjects to the same pupils. More often, polyvalence was used by the administration as an expedient that some teachers explicitly tried to escape, for example by asking for a move to a bigger institution. This mundane reality of small institutions invites us to pay renewed attention to teacher training and its regulation during the same period. At the end of the nineteenth century, teachers' specialisation had been inextricably linked with the modernisation of universities through the specialisation of the "licence de lettres" in 1880. When this model proved to be partially irrelevant for a significant proportion of post-elementary schools, how did universities react? Were universities fit for something other than training specialised teachers? The answer is yes. The curriculum organisation of the licence opened up several possibilities for training polyvalent teachers. This perspective was still looming at the end of the 1930s. The curricula of the different post-elementary settings analysed in this article shared the same characteristics: they worked as "serial codes" not as "integrated codes", to quote Basil Bernstein. Therefore the specialisation, bivalence or polyvalence of the teachers did not have much influence, in itself, on the degree of integration of the curriculum. From this perspective, specialisation could probably guarantee better teaching of the subject matters. However, polyvalent teachers were better suited to small schools than specialist ones. Considering demographic and geographic constraints, there was a clear trade-off between specialisation of teachers and separation of publics. In small cities, it was necessary either to mix the pupils to specialise the teachers, or to accept some kind of polyvalence to keep different types of students separated; the debate was still open during the 1930s. School massification, coeducation and the baby-boom era rapidly settled the matter for small cities after the Second World War, giving way to an effective specialisation of teachers. But the question remained open, until the end of the 1970s, for rural settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with youth organizations in Alsace, a region standing at the crossroads between France and Germany. It focuses on how the issue of nationhood was constructed within these youth groups during the first half of the twentieth century. Our hypothesis is that these socio-educational organizations, training grounds for autonomy and responsibility, are based on a principle of civic engagement from their young members. To this effect, in post-First World War Alsace, these organizations served as vehicles for the reintegration of this region into France, a process that cannot, however, be considered without respect for local social and cultural specificities. In other words, with regard to the activist direction of these movements, a local socio-political configuration seems to far outweigh the ideology of each group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abdelkébir Khatibi (Maroc) and Dany Laferrière (Haïti–Québec) belong to different cultural areas, but share the same linguistic practice in a postcolonial context. They are also similar in their conception of writing literature in a transitional world for a global age where the novel, as a Western form in its origin and under its authority, and also as an access point to modernity for the writers of the global South, aims at a certain form of transnational order. Both of these writers reject the dogmatic definition of identity from the perspective of an origin and of a supposed secular pact between fiction and nation. This paper examines the shift between francophone global fiction by way of a "regional criticism." However, this emerging global rhetoric, recently called "littérature-monde," may appear as a new utopian paradigm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing on Annie Ernaux's Mémoire de fille, and drawing insight from both a recent interview with the author and from historian Arlette Farge's work on the use of archives, this paper considers briefly how Ernaux uses her archived letters to give voice to her "former self" and to a generation of girls whose public behavior was inevitably subject to evaluation and judgment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates whether the calibrated parameter values for two rainfall–runoff models based on historical observed data can be used to reliably predict runoff responses to changes in future climate inputs. Analyses are carried out using historical monthly climate and runoff data from 27 catchments in West and Central Africa. Better performances are obtained when the models are calibrated on a dry period to predict runoff in a wet period. Similarly, it is easier for the models calibrated on a period of large hydroclimatic variability to predict runoff in a period of small hydroclimatic variability than the contrary. This paper tests also the assumption that transferability of rainfall–runoff models, variable hydroclimatic conditions, and local sensitivity of the model parameters can be linked. The inconclusive results still show variability according to the chosen efficiency criteria and selected periods. All these results indicate that the transfer of model parameters from one period to another can introduce a significant error in runoff simulations, which means increased uncertainty in the assessment of impact of climate and environmental changes, an essential question for West and Central Africa.Editeur M.C. Acreman; Editeur associé Gil Mahé [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper studies the New Novel's rhetoric (Nouveau Roman) in order to requalify, thanks to a dialectical approach, its positive definition in a negative way. Through a philosophical critique of the novelistic discourse, the aim is to highlight the theoretical power of novels which pay attention, in a rhetorical perspective, to the body thematic, the body considered as a fundamental and full component of a subjectivity determined by material and external structures. The New Novel, analyzed first as an expression of a "sensible objectivity," gives rise to a materialist and negative dialectic and has to be understood as an immanent critique of social, political, and historical structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pygmalion (the complex of Pygmalion), Balthasar (the Feast of Balthasar), and Arcimboldo (the painter) present three different models of association between "Sense and Senses" in the novelistic writing of History. This paper argues that by shifting from one model to another, the contemporary fiction of History becomes a kind of "istorical novel" (without h), which embodies the "fiduciary paradigm" at work in current times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to quantify the difficulties in the transplantation and development of argan tree in the Algerian Western Sahara. A diagnosis of the regeneration by reforestation was established on two experimental stations: Tindouf and Adrar, during six consecutive years. The relation between the bioclimatic conditions and the rates of resumption, the phenology and the growth of Argania spinosa were analysed. The results showed the possibilities of introducing the species by seeding in both sites of plantations which belong to a dry and hyper dry Mediterranean continental and semi continental climate. The success rates vary between 26.4 and 33.8%, in Adrar and Tindouf respectively. Our results also showed the effect of watering on the growth of plants. Indeed, a regular regime of irrigation gave plants with an average height of 185 cm, in the station of Adrar, against 125 cm to Tindouf. The monthly description of phenological stages of the Argan tree represents a biennial cycle with delayed flowering of the floral buds during the hottest summer period of the year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distance and dissension that characterized the relations between the internal and external resistance movements have had a deep and lasting impact on memories of the Second World War. For decades, the French 'maquis' played a central role in maintaining this dichotomy between the two Resistances. There were nonetheless links between them. The British, American and French archives reveal that some of the Free French worked tirelessly to support the internal Resistance and its maquis. Their negotiations on behalf of the internal Resistance during summit meetings are well known. This paper addresses a lower level of the hierarchy, examining how the Free French in charge of liaisons with the internal Resistance fulfilled their task. Therefore, the networks between Free France, the French maquis and the Allies are the focus of this study. By investigating the identities of those involved in this cooperation, it sheds light on the connections and solidarity which were built among the French maquis, London and Algiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a methodology for studying the sensitivity and uncertainty of the return period of an annual maximum flood that is partially measured, and of which observation is limited to the water-level trace on the river bed. Two other constraints are considered in the methodological choices. First, maximum discharges recorded during runoff events at the studied hydrological station are not available; only maximum annual discharges are accessible to illustrate the study. Also, the series of maximum annual discharges is short. Thus, the study focuses on mean daily flow series containing a single missing value corresponding to the partially gauged flood of interest. However, because the length of the available most complete mean daily flow series is moderate, a statistical model of Peaks Over Threshold (POT) is adopted. The maximum flow of the partially gauged flood is estimated from the water-level trace of the flood by five computation approaches (extrapolation with statistical regression using hydraulic parameters of the river bed section, two Manning-Strickler models in the homogeneous bed and two in the compound river bed section), using bed roughness coefficients according to the range deduced from previous station observations. We propose to study the statistical distribution of the ratio α of the annual maximum instantaneous flood to the annual maximum daily flow. Thus, the water-level trace on the river bed can be used to complete the series of mean daily runoff using a hypothesis on the value of α. The paper studies the uncertainty on α under various hypotheses of bed roughness. A lognormal distribution is fitted to α and Monte Carlo simulations are performed. A value of the mean daily runoff is further attached to each simulation of α. Fifty (50) runs are generated in every case. The POT model is then applied to every series of mean daily runoff thus obtained, and the quantiles of the mean daily flows for various return periods are estimated according to each series. The variability of simulated quantiles is represented by box-plots and is quantified by the interquartile range. The application concerns a hydrometric station controlling a basin of 9000 km2 in a semi-arid region in North Africa. Observed series are studied for the period 1984–2006 and 114 well-monitored flood events are available to perform the analysis. It is found that the median value of the 50-year mean daily runoff ranges from 1410 to 1840 m3/s depending on the threshold value and the assumption about bed roughness coefficient. The various methods, considering the different values of threshold, provide an interquartile range for the return period of the mean daily flow of this partially gauged flood of between 30 and 70 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The strong socio-economic growth of Quito has led to significant projects of inter-basin transfers, intensifying high-altitude resources mobilization in environmentally sensitive areas and with accelerated melting of glaciers. In order to study various future scenarios, we propose modelling of the climate/glacier/hydrology/water resources management continuum, applied to Andean basins. Using the tool Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP21), we developed: (1) semi-distributed hydro-climate modelling with monthly data using regional homogenization (vector method); (2) glacier modelling of water production and inter-annual evolution; (3) modelling in hydrological units depending on land cover; and (4) water management modelling distinguishing water rights, allocation and use. In this paper, we mainly present results of monthly hydrological calibrations (1963–2006), studying, in particular, the equifinality of various parameter settings. We show flexibility, robustness and limits of the proposed modelling, contributing to identification of uncertainties for evaluation of future scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In France, more and more employees, whether they are employed by state-owned or private enterprises, readily admit they suffer from stress. Although subjected to both deep and difficult transformations, post office counter clerks do not use the word. A three-year research study with counter clerks of La Poste, led by clinical sociologists from the viewpoint of clinical sociology, invites us to question the notion of stress. To begin, the paper takes the opportunity to clarify the use that a clinical sociologist makes of this English notion usually connected with individual psychology. It then shows in which circumstances the counter clerks, including those who work in offices considered 'calm', are in fact confronted with working conditions that qualify as stressful. Finally, through clinical cases, the paper contests the North American view of stress by showing that it is essentially founded on an individual understanding of this pathology and that it abusively overlooks the collective dimension of work in its account of a real suffering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How can clinical sociology be considered from an epistemological point of view, since it deals with social problems not in their overall dimension, but seen as specific situations where concrete people are suffering? This paper is concerned with a two-fold epistemological difficulty: from the one side, studying such problems could involve a therapeutic intervention that exceeds a purely scientific approach; then, has a clinical sociologist to deal with a social therapy? And how far does that (not) involve any political involvement? From the other side, under which conditions could he (she) generalize information coming from his (her) experience as to contribute to social theory (according to Merton's suggestions about theory and research)? An effective contribution to answer such questions can come from the concept of 'cultural pattern', as pointed out in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Les explorateurs qui ont entrepris de gravir la montagne des dieux et qui ont rendu la chose publique ne sont pas si nombreux. Bien sûr, toute une cohorte d'anonymes, bergers, bûcherons, soldats, brigands, moines ou guides, a depuis toujours sillonné le massif. Mais entre 1673—date de la première expédition connue—et 1922—terminus post quem des explorations que nous pourrions qualifier de pionnières—les voyageurs qui nous ont laissé des traces écrites de leurs expéditions dans le massif de l'Olympe ne sont pas plus d'une trentaine. En 1673, Edward Brown (1644–1708), diplômé de Cambridge et Fellow de la Royal Society, relate au cœur de ses 'brèves relations de voyage', les élans montagnards et cynégétiques du sultan Mohammed IV (1641–1693). En 1922, Helmut Scheffel, consul d'Allemagne à Volos, publie dans les Mitteilungen du noble Archäologische Institut d'Athènes la prospection qu'il aura effectuée à plus de 2900 mètres d'altitude. Ainsi en deux phrases, se trouvent présentés les acteurs et les enjeux de deux siècles et demi d'explorations: de l'érudit curieux à l'archéologue crédule, du voyage d'agrément au voyage scientifique, de l'invité de la cour mahométane au missionné d'une institution étrangère établie en Grèce, d'une montagne réelle vécue au temps présent à la quête de la montagne homérique et légendaire, d'une chasse à la lisière de la forêt à une conquête des cimes nues et aiguisées. Restent à détailler d'une part le contexte historique de ces expéditions et d'autre part le tableau d'une population locale à laquelle les voyageurs ont été confrontés. En effet, si l'Olympe a toujours été perçu par les Occidentaux comme un symbole de l'hellénisme, il n'en est pas moins resté sous le joug ottoman jusqu'en 1912 et ses habitants ont, comme la montagne hostile et magnifique, excité la curiosité et la bravoure de quelques voyageurs. Délogeant de l'Olympe ses nuées légendaires, nous rappellerons, au détour de récits plus ou moins anecdotiques, quelle position a tenue cet espace dans l'histoire grecque contemporaine. SUMMARY: This paper derives from the historiographical part of a PhD concerning Mount Olympus in ancient Greece whose scope is to establish the reciprocal influences of an existing space (the Thessalo-Macedonian mountain) and an imaginary space (the residence of the gods). Travellers' accounts enable us to ask similar questions in the context of modern and contemporary periods. Did the first explorers of Olympus really have in mind the mythical residence of Greek gods? Is their experience of the mountain transfigured by Homer's poetical view? Finally, do we find in these stories the consciousness or indeed the claim to explore a symbol of ancient Greece? Since the highest peaks of the Greek peninsula are to be found in Mount Olympus, climbing requires taking risks and confronting wildness and natural elements. The spirit of adventure is an evident component common to all these texts. But this spirit is not only concerned with alpinists' challenges; travel also offers the opportunity to meet local populations. When evoking Greeks, Valachs, Turks, Albanese and of course the legendary Klephts, the travellers provide insights into a territory still belonging to the European part of the Turkish empire, where fierce fighting takes place and which will become 'entirely Greek' only a couple of years before the First World War. Besides poetical philhellenism, the paper examines the circumstances in which the exploration of the mountain leads to the expression of political philhellenism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Le thème des contacts, échanges et influences entre le monde égéen et les mondes orientaux fait partie des grandes questions de l'historiographie de la Grèce ancienne et mobilise des chercheurs issus de diverses disciplines. Plusieurs sources attestent en effet, à des degrés divers, de relations établies entre ces régions. Des contacts ont été noués de part et d'autre de la mer Égée dès la période minoenne (première moitié du deuxième millénaire avant J.-C.). Malgré des vicissitudes et des intensités variables, les relations avec l'Orient—un Orient composé d'entités multiples et qui comprend pour notre propos l'Égypte, le Levant, le Proche-Orient, l'Asie Mineure et Chypre1—semblent être toujours attestées dans l'une ou l'autre région grecque depuis la fin de l'époque mycénienne (seconde moitié du deuxième millénaire). L'Orient semble même avoir exercé une fascination toute particulière sur le monde grec à l'époque archaïque (VIIIe–VIe siècles), dont la première trace est l'adoption de l'alphabet phénicien par les Grecs, et qui s'est concrétisée aussi par de nombreux échanges. Ces rencontres ont laissé des traces archéologiques tant du côté des régions orientales, en particulier sur la côte levantine, que dans les divers espaces du monde égéen. SUMMARY: Oriental studies belong to an old academic tradition and the question of the relations, exchanges and influences between the Oriental civilizations and the Greek world plays an important part in the study of antiquity. Some evidence for these contacts can be found in the so-called oriental dedications discovered in Greek archaic sanctuaries. However, this category of artefacts has not been clearly identified as such for quite a long time, being progressively elaborated through diverse publications and interpretations. It is this historiography that this paper explores, to understand the place these dedications have been given in classical and oriental research from the end of the nineteenth century onwards, and how this may have conditioned interpretation of the history of preclassical Greece. The diverse ways in which archaeologists have classified and published this material provide insights into their approaches to the question of oriental influences. As is argued in the last part of this paper, these approaches are closely related to national historiographies and scientific traditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Au terme desProlégomènes(1900), Husserl formule son idée de la logique pure en la structurant sur deux niveaux: l'un, supérieur, de la logique formelle fondé transcendantalement et d'un point de vue épistémologique par l'autre, inférieur, d'une morphologie des catégories. Seul le second de ces deux niveaux est traité dans lesRecherches logiques(1901), tandis que les travaux théoriques en logique formelle menés par Husserl à la même époque en paraissent plutôt indépendants. Cet article est consacré à ces travaux tels que recueillis dans les appendices VI-X du volume 12 desHusserliana(1970a). Mettant en évidence la théorie de la signification qui les sous-tend par le biais d'une analyse de la question dite de l'extension des systèmes d'axiomes et de sa résolution au moyen d'une notion decomplétude, son objectif est d'expliciter les modalités de l'intégration de la logique formelle dans l'idée husserlienne de la logique pure au tournant duxxsiècle. When formulating his idea of pure logic in the Prolegomena[Husserl, E. 1900. Logische Untersuchungen. T. I : Prolegomena zur reinen Logik, Halle: Niemeyer. Éd. fr.: Husserl 1959; chap. XI], Husserl configures it on two levels: the superior one of formal logic, concerned with the axiomatization of mathematical structures; the inferior one of transcendantal logic grounding the former from an epistemological standpoint (i.e. as a science and in terms of theory of knowledge). Nevertheless, only the latter is taken into consideration in the Logical Investigations[Husserl, E. 1901. Logische Untersuchungen. T. II: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis, Halle: Niemeyer. Éd. fr.: Husserl 1961/1963], while the theoretical work on formal logic that Husserl conducted at the same time seems at first glance rather independent. This paper is about that work as collected in the appendices VI–X toHusserliana 12 [Husserl, E. 1970a. Philosophie der Arithmetik. Mit ergänzenden Texten (1890–1901). Sous la dir. de Lothar Eley. (Husserliana 12). Den Haag: Nijhoff. Éd. orig.: Husserl 1972a, 1975]. And it aims at explicating how Husserl's conception formal logic fits in with his idea of pure logic. After an introductive recall about the young Husserl's evolution (Section 1), such a goal is reached here in three steps: first, by a presentation of Husserl's setting up of formal logic in 1900–1901 revolving around systems of axioms and formal domains with a focus on their linkage (Section 2); then, by the formulation of the question dealing with that very linkage, that is, the question of the extension of systems of axioms based on the so-called ‘problem of imaginary in mathematics’ focusing Husserl's theoretical research on formal logic at that time (Section 3); finally, by an analysis of Husserl's solution to those problem and question via his notion ofdefinitenessof systems of axioms and his conception of their completeness (Section 4). Realized from a historico-epistemological perspective, that systematic reconstruction highlights the theory meaning underlying Husserl's conception of formal logic and according to which, precisely, that latter integrates his idea of pure logic at the turn of the twentieth century (Section 5). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The identification of the constituents of inks can play an important part in the conservation and restoration of manuscripts. Capillary vapour phase chromatography was used to analyze old inks, following methanolysis and silylation. The technique was applied to two reference samples of old ink which weighed less than 100µg and several inks from various kinds of document were also analyzed. When the support of the documents was parchment, the nature of the ink was always identified: a more or less degraded gum was present in all the binding media, sometimes associated with other products. However, it was not possible to interpret the analysis of documents on paper. It is difficult to take samples of ink and they always contain a fragment of the support. The peaks from the paper overlap those of the ink, as can be seen by comparing the chromatograms of the support alone and the sample supposed to be only ink. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extraordinary energizing properties of microwaves have already been successfully applied in a number of industrial fields. Recent studies carried out at the CNRS have led to an optimization of the transfer of microwave energy to products in the form of sheets. Based on this work, a microwave drier specially designed for the restoration of paper has been constructed and studied. The results of these studies are presented here for papers treated as single sheets or in bundles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The SHYREG method is a flood frequency analysis method that can be applied to any location in the French metropolitan territory for flood risk management. It is based on an hourly stochastic rainfall generator coupled with a simplified distributed rainfall–runoff model. This paper presents the validation of flood frequency estimates made using SHYREG for a wide range of 1605 French catchments. For current return periods (i.e. of up to 10 years), the SHYREG-estimated flood frequency values are consistent with estimates from the generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution based on the Nash-Sutcliffe criterion. For extreme return periods, validation of flood frequency estimates is based on: (a) consistent peak and daily discharges estimated from a long observed flow record; (b) reasonable modelled saturation of the production storage for extreme events; and (c) studying the robustness of the SHYREG method by means of statistical criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The circulation of knowledge and educational innovations at the beginning of the twentieth century followed the growth of public educational systems. It led to complex exchanges and configurations due to the crossing of different national traditions, ideas and practices. The organisation of homogeneous classrooms according to the mental development of students and of special classes for children with learning difficulties and personality troubles are examples of this process. In the elementary schools of Belo Horizonte, Brazil, special classes for the "mentally retarded" were part of a reform of the public educational system promoted by the local government in 1927. The reform was implemented during the 1930s under the supervision of the Belo Horizonte Teachers Training College, where foreign specialists were hired to head the Laboratory of Psychology and to help in the organisation of homogeneous classrooms. The Laboratory of Psychology was established in 1928 by the French psychiatrist Théodore Simon (1873–1961), who had been invited for the task, and its directorship was assumed subsequently by two Russian psychologists who had worked as assistants to Claparède at the Rousseau Institute in Geneva (Léon Walther [1889–1963], in the first semester of 1929, and Helena Antipoff [1892–1974] from 1929 till 1944). The purpose of this paper is to study the project of special classes that were established at the time, using as sources articles published by Antipoff and her students in the periodical Infância Excepcional (Exceptional Children), edited in Belo Horizonte during the 1930s and 1940s, the correspondence Antipoff maintained with her master Édouard Claparède (1873–1940), the Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist, and a founder of the Rousseau Institute of the Sciences of Education in Geneva, and other documents concerning the works of the Belo Horizonte Teachers Training College. This article looks at how these special classes, based on the guidelines proposed by Helena Antipoff, were established, adapted and transformed within the Brazilian context. Born in Russia, Helena Antipoff studied in France (1910–1911), where she was an intern at the Binet-Simon laboratory of psychology, and Geneva (1912–1914), where she completed her studies in the sciences of education at the Jean-Jacques Rousseau Institute, where she subsequently worked as teaching assistant and researcher (1926–1929). The authors' hypothesis is that the special classes established in Belo Horizonte were designed on the basis of the European, especially the Genevan model; that they represented an example of the international flow and dissemination of knowledge, and of the building of a benchmark in the field of special education in Brazil; that they subsequently contributed to the social construction of professions related to the field of special education and of the circulation and modelling of what came to be labelled as "learning and personality troubles" in children. Special classes for the education of "retarded" children and of children with learning difficulties were established in Geneva in the beginning of the twentieth century, where Claparède had supervised the examination and selection of students and the training of schoolteachers for special education since 1901. With the foundation of the Rousseau Institute in 1912, the training of teachers and the development of methods for the examination and education of special children were assumed by the Institute's team, including Claparède, the medical doctor François Naville and Alice Descoeudres, who was responsible for the development of several methods for special education. In Belo Horizonte, the establishment of special classes for the education of "retarded" children was part of a school reform launched in 1927, inspired by New Education ideals. Under Antipoff's leadership, the Laboratory of Psychology promoted the organisation of homogeneous classrooms and of special education classes in local elementary schools, starting in 1930. Intelligence tests were adapted for the measurement of the mental development of students. In the interpretation of the results, Antipoff emphasised the role of the social environment in shaping students' cognitive abilities, and developed the concept of "civilised intelligence" to explain differences in students' performances with regard to the social level of their families. "Civilised intelligence" referred to intellectual abilities already polished by society and culture, present in mental test results. She discussed with Claparède the possibility of including a "social factor" in the interpretation of test results. In the organisation and supervision of educational activities in the special classes of Belo Horizonte, the laboratory of Psychology team adapted mental orthopaedic exercises developed in Paris by Alfred Binet and in Geneva by Alice Descoeudres. Books written by Claparède and Descoeudres were translated into Portuguese, and educational practices recommended for special classes based on their suggestions were spread among teachers who came from other Brazilian states and even from other Latin American countries to attend the Belo Horizonte Teachers College. In 1932, under Antipoff's leadership, a group of teachers, doctors and intellectuals established the Belo Horizonte Pestalozzi Society for the purpose of better developing the examination and the education of mentally "retarded" and troubled children, and of giving support for the work done in special classes in Belo Horizonte schools. The approach to special education developed at the Laboratory of Psychology and at the Pestalozzi Society became known in Brazil for its "Active school" perspective, inspired by the Genevan experience. Reports written by Antipoff's students such as Naytres Rezende show that most students who attended special classes presented normal levels of intelligence, but were psychologically disturbed. The majority of those students came from low-income families. Mental orthopaedic exercises were then adapted for the development of the "civilised intelligence" required by schools. Concerning the development of special education in Belo Horizonte, one can see that the division of classes by intellectual level, the use of intelligence tests for diagnosis, the reference to the idea of a "student tailored school" proposed by Claparède, and the dialogue with methods suggested by Alice Descoeudres provide evidence of its close relationship with the Genevan model. The ideal of a scientific pedagogy, as proposed by Claparède, was remarkable in the Belo Horizonte experience, under the leadership of the Teachers College Laboratory of Psychology. At the same time, the interpretation of mental test results as manifestations of a type of "civilised intelligence" and the adaptations of mental orthopaedic exercises in order to develop this kind of intelligence required by schools show the transformations of the model within the Brazilian context. Although the model proposed for Belo Horizonte special classes can be interpreted as deriving from the Genevan approach, more research is needed to better describe how these ideas were put into practice within the highly complex institutional context of existing schools. It is important to observe what the consequences were of the organisation of special classes for children with learning or personality troubles for the future development of the local school system and for the targeted population, i.e. children with difficulties of adaptation to a highly centralised and hierarchical school system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper evaluates the use of auxiliary insects, the parasitoid wasp Trichogramma evanescens, to counter an infestation of clothes moths Tineola bisselliella in the reserves of the Geneva Ethnographic Museum. After two seasons of deployment of the auxiliaries and monitoring of pest numbers using pheromone traps it was concluded that the parasitoids failed to be efficient because of their limited mobility. Also, the distribution of auxiliary insects made a major cleaning campaign necessary to remove the dead parasitoids from the entire collection involved. The infestation was finally ended by traditional means of hygiene, thorough inspection of the objects, and anoxic treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a study of the sediment transport in the Wadi Bellah watershed. In order to understand the sedimentation dynamic in the watershed, analysis is based on instantaneous flow data and the concentration of suspended sediments transported in the stream. The results show that the annual average of specific degradation is about 610 t km−2year−1. This value is comparable to those found in other regions with similar hydrologic regimes. Analysis of the evolution of sediment concentration in the stream and the quantification of sediment fluxes showed that the sediment supply occurs mainly during floods. Three periods of active erosion are distinguished, the first, intense in winter, the other two of lesser extent in spring and autumn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

L'article s'attache au renouveau des conflits sociaux que l'on observe en France à partir des années 1990, dont l'épisode le plus marquant sera les grèves de novembre-décembre 1995 qui, parce qu'elles se terminent a priori sur un succès (le retrait de la réforme des fonds spéciaux de retraite), contribue à ré-enchanter l'engagement et à réorganiser l'espace des mouvements sociaux. Centré sur la question sociale portée par les mouvements de 'sans' (sans emploi, sans logis, sans papiers) et de jeunes syndicats radicalisés (les SUD et la Confédération paysanne), le retour de la critique débouche à la charnière du siècle sur la nouvelle cause de l'altermondialisme. Contre l'interprétation d'une radicale nouveauté de ces mouvements, l'article montre combien ils se caractérisent par l'hybridation des cultures militantes, en raison notamment de l'importance en leur sein des militants multipositionnés et des contraintes d'échelles auxquelles ils font face. Il nuance également le caractère 'global' des mobilisations altermondialistes en relevant les conditions de possibilité mais aussi d'épuisement du passage au registre transnational. The article focuses on the renewal of social conflict seen in France since the 1990s, the most notable episode of which is surely the strikes of November–December 1995 which, because they ended on what can be taken for a success (the withdrawal of the reform of public pensions), helped to reinvigorate commitment and reorganise the social movement landscape. Centring on the social questioning posed by the movements of the 'sans' (those without a job, a home or residence papers) and by young, radicalised trade unionists (of the SUD unions and the Confédération paysanne), the renewed criticism opens, at the turn of the century, onto the new cause of counter-globalisation. Disagreeing with those who argue for the radical newness of these movements, the article shows how much they are characterised by the hybridisation of militant cultures, notably because so many of their activists belong to multiple organisations and because of the constraints of scale that they face. The article also questions the extent of the 'global' character of counter-globalisation movements by examining the conditions that enable the move to a transnational register or render it no longer effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Of the various types of ruins, some are precipitated by nature and time, but others, more violently, in conflict and war. Such ruins act as signs of wasteful and destructive human acts, and often carry hortatory overtones for the viewer. The ruin, far from being a ‘mark of peace’ (as Simmel, in his classic article suggests), is a sign that warns of man's violent nature. This idea is explored in this paper, in part, through the work of modern artists Anselm Kiefer and Anne and Patrick Poirier. Author then looks to the ancient world, to Greece and Rome and to such examples as Rome and Athens, as well as to iconic modern sites such as the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche in Berlin and the Königsplatz in Munich. The author offers a summary typology of the ruin and suggests that we can construct a model of restless yet significant sites. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this article the author considers the ruin as the focus of contradictory positions of rejection and even loathing in the process of ‘the transfer of the empire’ (translatio imperii) in historical time. The author considers questions of continuity and rupture, with relation to the idea of ruins and grand monuments on the one hand, and living empires and changing circumstances on the other. The author comments on the relations among material remains, mental images, linguistic artefacts and other types of objects in the progressive move away from antiquity and towards the empires of Christianity. The author shows that the city remains a fluid, but steady, presence amidst historical change. The paper argues for new constructions built on the infrastructure that is the ruins of the pagan past, and especially Rome. Ruins are an irresistible attraction but also instigating desperate attempts to sweep aside an ‘overflow of memory’. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Despite numerous French scientific expeditions across the Pacific, from Bougainville in 1766 to Du Petit-Thouars in 1842, very few ethnographic objects — indigenous artifacts — are now held in public collections. The invisibility of such artifacts, or Oceania, brought back by French voyages of discovery contrasts sharply with the 2000 objects collected during the three voyages of James Cook and still preserved in repositories throughout the world. The rarity of archival records relating to the French assemblages means that few reliable identifications are possible. It is surprising that these collections, gathered at great expense, should have disappeared almost at the point of their creation since, in Europe generally, the project of assembling South Seas collections quickly became established. Moreover, the intellectual commitment of Natural History to the systematic ordering and methodical classification of things was already in full force. The discontinuous history of the first collections brought back to France from the Pacific is a remarkable example of the failure to develop a science of man grounded in objects. This paper highlights the contrast between English and French conceptions of a museological project for dealing with Oceania. It investigates the relationships between a material history of collections and the science of man then emergent in France. The disappearance of these objects from the late 18th and early 19th centuries must be understood in the context of the stalling of a project to conceptualize non-European worlds through cultural artifacts. This failure points to the French paradox of having lost almost everything, despite the formulation over more than a century of several museological projects intended to conserve, exhibit and exploit such objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It took more than a dozen years after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 for football matches between France and Germany to be resumed. Four matches were organised between 1931 and 1937 at a time when France’s response to the rise of German military ambitions was mainly to support pacifism. The last match, planned for 1939, was cancelled. Against a background of economic crisis and growing tensions between the two nations, these sporting events were widely reported in the press. The four specialist newspapers analysed in this paper – Football, Match, Le Miroir des Sports and L’Auto – reflected France’s anxiety as well as her political attitudes. From the French point of view, these matches (concerning the most popular sport of both countries) mirrored a growing belief in Germany’s superiority while disseminating stereotypes of both the ‘German’ and the ‘Frenchman’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nurse already appears in the Odyssey as a key character in Greek family life, showing all the characteristics that will remain hers throughout Greek Antiquity: she is a slave and has been working in her master's house before the child's birth; she has been chosen specially for the task of nursing and rearing the newborn, as she attends the delivery and is the first one to take the baby in her arms; later on, she takes care of the general education of the child and follows her 'protege' in his/her adult life; sometimes, she carries out the same tasks for her protege's children. While recent research has often focused on her servile status, basing its arguments mostly on literature, this paper is based on iconography. The Greek nurse has the peculiarity of being very often represented as an old woman, even in the company of small children. The analysis of the context of representations of the trophos and of their chronological evolution allows us to reach a conclusion about this peculiar feature that goes beyond a realistic interpretation or a simple 'caricature'. The old age shown by the Greek trophos, and the Greek paidagogos also, is a means to express the ideal of personal renunciation that is expected of them: it seems that the Greek trophos was not so much attached to her functions of nursing and educating as to the child itself, acting as a kind of protective daimon for it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various factors oblige today's parents to entrust their children to a child-care worker (CCW), providing services in the domestic sphere, either at the child's parental house or at the day-care worker's (DCW's) own home. Taking this into account, this paper examines job offers and applications for DCWs published in a regional Swiss newspaper as well as other job offers and applications published on a website called bestnounou.ch. The parents often tend to use a variety of terms, which do not point to the child-caring or rearing activity itself, but rather emphasise sociological characteristics of the CCW (age, gender, civil status), requesting, for example, a 'lady', a 'grandmother', a 'student'. Thereby, the parents present the child-care work as: (1) a secondary and temporary activity in relation to another major stable activity (motherhood, apprenticeship, retirement); and (2) an activity that does not require professional skills but inborn aptitudes. Moreover, employers use as synonyms distinctive terms, which refer to various categories of CCW and domestic workers, whose schedules of conditions and salaries are regulated and differ. The parents' inclination to use terms designating the most precarious and underpaid CCW underscores the importance of child-care in the domestic sphere. It leads also to a public image of child-care workers as being a fragmented, unstable, little qualified and economically inconsistent workforce, in contrast to the stable and structural need for their specific services, allowing parents to face their familial and professional responsibilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In ancient Greece, the representation of the divine and heroic world is characterised by a very sophisticated anthropomorphism. However, the supra-human world is more than the lifelike projection of a human society into a higher sphere. In the discrepancies between socio-history and representation, some aspects of a divine specificity can be discerned. Accordingly, the respective roles of mother and wet nurse are not human types transported as such in the society of Greek gods. These types of human experience are 'translated' at a higher level to suggest some aspects of the relationship that men want to establish with their gods. In return - and taking into account the discrepancies mentioned above - the narrative plots that feature such roles among the gods and heroes can reflect on their human counterparts and some current practices within Greek society. This paper addresses the role of the wet nurse respectively endorsed by the goddess Demeter taking care of a human baby and by the goddess Hera suckling the hero Heracles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article approaches the problem of corporal memory from a social and clinical point of view. It shows the methodology of work proposing to approach it from the statement of life and from the body across activities of expression that help the symbolization and the elaboration of corporal memory. The paper discusses the theories that sustain the work and that allows the authors to clarify the social aspects involved in traumatic situations. It also provides some cases that illustrate the interest of the work on corporal memory in cases of sexual abuse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Market performance with respect to a main horticultural export commodity in Bhutan is the subject of this paper. Imperfections in (market) infrastructure and market structure and conduct may prevent an optimal price for farmers. Market performance is assessed by testing the law of one price for this commodity. This is done by testing three series of auction price data on both long-run and short-run price integration. It is concluded that for the period 1996-2000 the auction prices were interrelated both in the long and short run with one of the three auctions as the price-leading market. In contrast, in the period 2001-2005 the market arbitrage process slowed down, indicating the rise of market imperfections. Policy implications are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cette recherche est fondée sur l'importante confrontation entre les écoles française et américaine pour l'étude anthropologique (et accessoirement paléopathologique) sur le territoire grec. Cette opposition prend comme figures de proue Robert P. Charles, chercheur français issu de la paléontologie et totalement novice en anthropologie tant physique que sociale, et John L. Angel, anthropologue américain formé par les plus grandes universités de la côte est. Si le premier n'a absolument pas évolué dans sa méthodologie et s'est cantonné à un examen centré sur le crâne et négligeant le reste du squelette (Argos, Chypre, Crète...), le second a profité de ses doubles compétences médicales et anthropologiques pour échafauder plusieurs hypothèses physiopathologiques et en vérifier l'exactitude sur l'immense masse de squelettes examinés au cours de sa carrière de 50 ans. Il développe le concept d'hyperostose poreuse à Lerne et met en relation cette entité nosologique (aspect criblé de la table externe de la voûte crânienne) avec l'existence d'une anémie chronique, notamment d'origine paludéenne. Plus qu'une comparaison méthodologique entre ces deux écoles, on dégagera des prises de position opposées sur les origines raciales et culturelles du peuplement de la Grèce. On tentera de montrer l'influence des pensées politiques nationales sur les conclusions et les problématiques d'études anthropologiques étrangères (ici le monde grec). La primauté des crânes au cours de ces études anthropologiques (ce que nous appelons le 'crâniocentrisme') a pu être à l'origine de nombreuses justifications de théories raciales sur les différents mouvements migratoires à l'origine de la Grèce moderne. Summary: This research is built upon the important confrontation between the French and American schools of archaeology in Athens in the field of anthropological (and secondarily paleopathological) studies in Greek territory. The two main figures of this opposition are R. P. Charles, a French researcher coming from paleontology and a full probationer in physical and social anthropology, and J. L. Angel, an American anthropologist trained in the finest East Coast universities. While Charles never evolved throughout his career and had a true fascination for raciology based on skull examination, neglecting the rest of the skeleton, Angel used his double medical and anthropological knowledge to elaborate physiopathological hypotheses, checking their impact on the extraordinary number of skeletons he studied during his fifty-year career. He developed the concept of porotic hyperostosis in Lerna and proposed a relation between this anatomical entity (the cribriform aspect of the external cranial vault) and chronic anaemia, sometimes induced by malaria. In addition to a methodological comparison between these two schools, this paper tries to elucidate their opposing conceptions of the racial and cultural origins of historical Greeks. The influence of national politics on the conclusions and problematics of foreign anthropological studies in Greece is also examined. The primacy accorded to the skull in anthropological studies (i.e. craniocentrism) may have been at the origin of many racial theories concerning the different migratory movements that made modern Greece. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Le but de notre contribution est d'éclairer l'histoire de l'archéologie classique en Turquie, plus particulièrement à travers l'exemple de l'historiographie des sites d'Ionie (entre Phocée et Milet, inclus les îles de Chios et Samos) à l'époque archaïque, et de comprendre comment cette histoire a pu influencer la manière dont les explorations archéologiques de ces sites on été conduites et leurs données interprétées. Nous souhaitons porter notre attention sur deux notions historiographiques spécifiquement liées à cette région: en premier lieu, nous souhaitons montrer que le mythe de « l'Age d'Or » a longtemps conditionné l'interprétation des données matérielles fournies par l'archéologie en terme de développement culturel et de civilisation. Par ailleurs, il apparaît que le développement de l'archéologie classique en Turquie est profondément lié à celui de la République turque, particulièrement dans le choix des sites qui ont été explorés. A travers la création d'un espace imaginaire qui relie la Turquie à la culture occidentale, cette approche a pour conséquence essentielle le renforcement d'une identité commune forte et d'un héritage que la jeune République a pu utiliser afin de promouvoir sa cohésion interne et une certaine forme de reconnaissance externe vis-à-vis des pays occidentaux. Mais jusqu'où ces présupposés respectent-ils les réalités anciennes? SUMMARY: The aim of this paper is to shed some light on the history of classical archaeology in western Turkey, and more precisely on the study of ancient Ionia (the area extending between the ancient Greek cities of Phokaia and Miletos, including the islands of Chios and Samos) during the archaic period, and to understand how this history may have influenced the way the excavations of these sites have been conducted and interpreted. The authors focus on two specific topics: the first is the myth of the Golden Age, which underlies the interpretations of the material remains brought to light at the beginning of the twentieth century, and which was later reinterpreted by Turkish excavators in terms of cultural development and civilizational growth. The second is the influence of the rise and the history of the Turkish Republic on the development of Turkish classical archaeology, regarding especially the choice of sites to explore. The authors show that the ultimate consequence of these two intertwining phenomena is the creation of a common identity and cultural legacy that the young Republic could use in order to promote its claims for internal cohesion and external recognition. The archaeology of archaic Ionia has created an imaginary space that links Turkey to Western culture and contributes to the development of its national identity. One must wonder, however, how far this vision is adequate to the study of the ancient Greek world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present paper the author proposes a mytho-symbolic analysis of some of the main texts of Maria Montessori (1870–1952) in which the theme of the New Child was the object of particular attention. Study of these texts enables the author to demonstrate that Montessori insisted on the redemptive character of the new child. The child serves as the guide to the adult in forming a society of new men. He constitutes the guidance for the construction of a new more harmonious, pacific future. This study is based on a pedagogic-cultural approach by the use of a mythanalytic hermeneutics and the elaboration of an ideologemic decor that shows the vectors of the texts analysed as well as the mythical contours of those ideas. The result of the mythanalytic reading, carried out with the most rigorous hermeneutic criteria, concludes that Montessori is under a strong influence of Christian mythologemes such as that of the Saviour Child or its related myths of Hermes and Prometheus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contains an edition of the manuscript Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, n. a. lat. 1523-II. The edition is preceded by an introduction in which the author claims that the manuscript is a unique copy of a lost abbreviation and paraphrase of Landolfus Sagax. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Without radically upsetting the institutional and political balance of the Union, the Commission's White Paper on Governance, published 25 July 2001, proposes a new basis for the EU's institutional legitimacy. However, this conceptual re-foundation gives rise to new and fundamental questions. To speak of governance within democracy is indeed unthinkable unless 'governance' is redefined as a form of government where the legitimacy of public action (as well as its efficiency) is made possible by a 'proceduralisation' of law. The failure to promote legitimacy with concepts borrowed from the vocabulary of the nation-state is nevertheless puzzling: should the 'participatory democracy' be considered a substitute for representative democracy? Even if this is not the case, it is uncertain whether 'participatory democracy' sufficiently embodies the democratic ideal, at least at the European Union level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various methods of bleaching in common use have been studied. Three types of aged paper (rag, chemical and mechanical woodpulp) were washed, deacidified, bleached, deacidified again and artificially aged. The physico-chemical effects of bleaching were measured by the degree of overbleaching, yellowing and loss of mechanical resistance as well as by analysis by electron microprobe and gel permeation chromatography. Seven methods were finally retained and their application is described in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses Romania’s relationship with the communist past. It is structured around three themes: official forgetting and belated condemnation, the pervading discourse of NGOs which focuses on the victims of communism, and the resurgence of nostalgia in opinion polls, seen as an expression of the problems of living in a democracy. In this context, the author examines visible forms of cultural memory which have appeared in recent years (the 2000s), in particular the role played by the nostalgic gaze. We find thus different types of nostalgia: social, commercial and tourism. We can then question the role played by this nostalgic gaze in works by Romanian contemporary artists and filmmakers who produce memory art. As a specific form of cultural memory, memory art seeks to sketch out an image of the past which is more comprehensive. The article describes the different forms nostalgia has taken in Romania in recent years and juxtaposes this with the most important works of art, following three themes: the obsessional portrait of Ceaușescu, personal, even autobiographical memory, and the residues of communism as depicted inProjet 1990. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article examines the research methods of one of the most famous twentieth-century Russian philosophers, Aleksei Losev. At present, the work of this thinker is the subject of study at numerous universities in Russia, North America, and Europe. Nevertheless, questions about Losev's place in contemporary philosophy and his research methods remain unanswered. Thus, this article examines the most important philosophical tendencies that significantly influenced Losev's work and concludes that Losev is primarily and overall a dialectician and the author of a very specific and original philosophical doctrine whose methodological founding principles originate in dialectical logic, one that differs considerably from other theories that currently exist in contemporary philosophy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ce texte aborde la question de I'interaction entre art, spiritualité et connaissance dans I'œuvre de la poète Elena Guro (1877-1913), associée au mouvement futuriste russe. Étudiant principalement ses courts textes, considérés à la fois comme le terrain et comme le miroir d'une quête spirituelle posant pour visée ultime l'atteinte d'une connaissance parfaite du monde, nous nous intéressons particulièrement au rôle joué par la pratique artistique dans une telle démarche. Nous postulons que c'est par le travail de reconstruction de l'espace et du temps qu'elle seule peut permettre que la poésie prend tout son sens chez Guro. L'art, en annihilant à sa guise les barrières spatio-temporelles, agit sur la perception commune de I'univers et rèvéle certains aspects des choses qu'une acceptation presque inconditionnelle de I'espace euclidien avait laissés dans I'ombre. En somme, c'est parce qu'il permet le renversement de I'ordre des choses et facilite ainsi I'atteinte d'une connaissance nouvelle et intime du monde que I'art, chez Guro, peut mener à I'illumination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Les historiens ont souvent souligné que lorsque Napoléon fonda le duché de Varsovie sur les mines de la Pologne prussienne (juillet 1807), le souverain français se réserva le droit exclusif à disposer d'un diplomate à Varsovie : le résident de France, appelé à incarner la tutelle française sur cet embryon d'Etat polonais placé sous la prudente suzeraineté du vieux roi de Saxe. Mais si le rôle du résident dans les échanges entre Paris et Varsovie a été fréquemment étudié, le fait que pendant de nombreux mois celui-ci ne fut pas le seul diplomate à donner son opinion sur le duché de Varsovie a été assez largement négligé. En effet, au nom de la souveraineté du roi de Saxe sur le duché, le représentant de Napoléon à Dresde prétendit lui aussi s'intéresser aux affaires polonaises, entrant de facto en concurrence avec son collègue de Varsovie, et ce jusqu'à ce qu'il reconnut enfin la pleine autonomie du résident à I'été 1809. L'article s'attache à retracer cette concurrence (enjeux, effets, acteurs) et à la replacer dans le cadre des relations de pouvoir entre Varsovie, Dresde et Paris, s'interrogeant pour finir sur son caractère révélateur du processus d'autonomisation du duché de Varsovie à I'égard de la Saxe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

L'article est consacré au cycle de poèmes Les Géants : récits héroïques (1985) par Mikhaïl Soukhotine qui constitue I'une des œuvres les plus remarquables de la poésie russe de la période du passage du conceptualisme au poste-conceptualisme. L'orientation vers I'épique manifestée déja dans le titre donne lieu à poser une question sur l' « effet d'épopée », le terme par lequel on essaie de saisir le caractère singulier de la présence de I'épopée chez Soukhotine. L'effet d'épopee repose sur deux stratégies contradictoires. De I'un côté, en suivant aux procédés conceptualistes, le poète construit son texte à I'aide de combinaisons associatives d'éléments disparates de divers registres du langage appartenant à la conscience de masse : chansons et blagues populaires, folklore traditionnel et urbain, des images de lecture scolaire aussi bien que des « légendes officielles » soviétiques. En plus, I'auteur joue avec des modèles de I'épopée classique en se référant aux schémas narratifs de divers genres épiques. La juxtaposition des éléments étérogénes crée un effet ironique, qui déconstruit I'idéologie héroïque soviétique aussi bien que la pensée épique en générale. De I'autre coté, Soukhotine établit une nouvelle et positive vision de I'épique en tant que « folklore contemporain » (termes de l'auteur). La conception ambivalente d'épopée supporte les idées bakhtiniennes sur la nature de I'épique, qui sewent d'un des éléments de la base théorique de I'article, et en même temps ouvrent une polémique avec celles-ci. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]