Search

Background: Although Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) is internationally considered a harmful practice, it is increasingly being medicalized allegedly to reduce its negative health effects, and is thus suggested as a harm reduction strategy in response to these perceived health risks. In many countries where FGM/C is traditionally practiced, the prevalence rates of medicalization are increasing, and in countries of migration, such as the United Kingdom, the United States of America or Sweden, court cases or the repeated issuing of statements in favor of presumed minimal forms of FGM/C to replace more invasive forms, has raised the debate between the medical harm reduction arguments and the human rights approach. Main body: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the arguments associated with the medicalization of FGM/C, a trend that could undermine the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 5.3. The paper uses four country case studies, Egypt, Indonesia, Kenya and UK, to discuss the reasons for engaging in medicalized forms of FGM/C, or not, and explores the ongoing public discourse in those countries concerning harm reduction versus human rights, and the contradiction between medical ethics, national criminal justice systems and international conventions. The discussion is structured around four key hotly contested ethical dilemmas. Firstly, that the WHO definition of medicalized FGM/C is too narrow allowing medicalized FGM to be justified by many healthcare professionals as a form of harm reduction which contradicts the medical oath of do no harm. Secondly, that medicalized FGM/C is a human rights abuse with lifelong consequences, no matter who performs it. Thirdly, that health care professionals who perform medicalized FGM/C are sustaining cultural norms that they themselves support and are also gaining financially. Fourthly, the contradiction between protecting traditional cultural rights in legal constitutions versus human rights legislation, which criminalizes FGM/C. Conclusion: More research needs to be done in order to understand the complexities that are facilitating the medicalization of FGM/C as well as how policy strategies can be strengthened to have a greater de-medicalization impact. Tackling medicalization of FGM/C will accelerate the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goal of ending FGM by 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, I discuss compulsory genital examinations in Swedish African, mainly Somali, girls. The discussion is based on data from 122 police files, including criminal investigations regarding suspected "female genital mutilation" (FGM). A growing body of research in European countries indicates that processes of cultural change are occurring among immigrant communities from areas where traditionally girls are subjected to what is construed as "circumcision". Many studies show growing opposition to these practices among people who have migrated to Europe, and there is little evidence to support the assertion that large-scale illegal activities are prevalent. Yet there is a dominant discourse stating that FGM is secretively practised on a large scale among some immigrant groups in Europe, and policies encourage the detection of cases to charge in criminal court. I describe the current situation in Sweden and highlight some of the drawbacks of a very harsh, although well-intended, policy to check for FGM in Europe. While the ultimate aim is to protect girls at risk for FGM, current policies have ramifications that are invasive and sometimes even traumatising for the girls involved. This paper offers an empirical example of how politics in western multicultural societies may negatively influence the sexual health and rights of a target group, in this case, girls and young women whose families originate from countries where circumcision of girls is practiced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Reproductive Health is the property of BioMed Central and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

South Africa is infamous for its history of disenfranchising most of its population under the dehumanizing policy of apartheid. A country of almost 50 million people, South Africa has a diverse array of languages, races, religions and ethnic communities, and has faced significant challenges -- political, cultural and socio-economic -- since the advent of democracy in 1994. The writers of the 1996 Constitution faced the unenviable task of accommodating the diverse viewpoints that inevitably derived from South Africa's fractured history and society. The Constitution is one of the most progressive in the world, and notably includes a Bill of Rights, which in addition to including civil and political rights typically protected by international human rights instruments, includes protection of socio-economic and cultural rights. Cultural rights are protected in Sections 30 and 31 of the Constitution, although such protection is not without limitation. This highly complex interplay and "competition" between human rights and culture is the golden thread that traces through the paper, which focuses on several cultural practices and traditions which, it is suggested, violate certain human rights norms in South Africa. These practices and traditions, all of which relate to women, are reviewed -- together with the sections of the South African Constitution that they are considered to violate. Using the example of curbing the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM) in other African countries through the NGO Tostan, it is emphasized that the law is only one component of a multidisciplinary approach, and that civil society, government and other role-players are all needed to change perceptions and attitudes. In conclusion, general recommendations are made about reducing the conflict between culture and human rights in South Africa. These include the use of human rights education, human rights advocacy on gender issues, legislative measures, and developing customary law to ensure compatibility with the South African Constitution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is about how female circumcision/female genital mutilation (FC/FGM) was viewed by women and men aged 18–89 in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, now that it has been against the law for almost 15 years. The findings come from 11 months of field research, participant observation and interviews in 2008. The practice of FC/FGM was an important issue in Bobo-Dioulasso, even though prevalence seems to be falling. The most important argument for continuing it was not a traditional role, but the need to control female sexuality – regarded as very active – not to negate it, but to ensure morally acceptable behaviour. When I talked about female genital cosmetic surgery it emerged that Bobolaise women used various substances to enhance sexual pleasure for men, both to keep the relationship and to protect the gifts and money many women needed to survive and for their children. FC/FGM was seen as a socio-cultural obligation, necessary to achieve a respectable status. Other forms of genital modification were seen as a means of satisfying male sexual needs, though vaginal tightening to hide sexual experience was also a way of demonstrating respectability. What emerged overall is that Bobolaises had their own perspectives about all the forms of female genital modification that were discussed. Cet article décrit l'idée que les femmes et les hommes âgés de 18–89 ans se font de l'excision/la mutilation sexuelle féminine à Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, alors qu'elle est désormais illégale depuis près de 15 ans. Ces conclusions proviennent d'une recherche de terrain de 11 mois, d'observation participante et d'entretiens en 2008. La mutilation sexuelle féminine était un problème important à Bobo-Dioulasso, même si sa prévalence semble diminuer. L'argument le plus important pour la poursuivre n'était pas son rôle traditionnel, mais la nécessité de contrôler la sexualité féminine, considérée très active, non pas de la nier, mais de garantir un comportement moralement acceptable. Quand j'ai parlé de chirurgie plastique des organes génitaux féminins, il est apparu que les Bobolaises utilisaient différentes substances pour augmenter le plaisir masculin, à la fois dans le but de garder leur partenaire et conserver les cadeaux et l'argent dont beaucoup de femmes ont besoin pour survivre et pour leurs enfants. La mutilation sexuelle féminine était considérée comme une obligation socioculturelle, nécessaire pour jouir d'un statut respectable. D'autres formes de modification génitale étaient jugées comme un moyen de satisfaire les besoins sexuels masculins, même si le rétrécissement vaginal pour cacher l'expérience sexuelle était aussi une manière pour la femme de démontrer sa respectabilité. Il est apparu dans l'ensemble que les Bobolaises avaient leurs propres opinions sur toutes les formes de modification génitale féminine évoquées. En este artículo se examina la manera en que la circuncisión femenina/mutilación genital femenina (CF/MGF) era vista por mujeres y hombres de 18 a 89 años de edad, en Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, ahora que ha sido ilegal por casi 15 años. Los hallazgos provienen de 11 meses de investigación en el campo, observación participante y entrevistas realizadas en 2008. La práctica de CF/MGF era un asunto importante en Bobo-Dioulasso, aunque la prevalencia parece haber disminuido. El argumento más importante para continuarla no era su función tradicional, sino la necesidad de controlar la sexualidad femenina – considerada como muy activa – no negarla, pero sí asegurar comportamiento moralmente aceptable. Cuando hablé sobre cirugía cosmética de los genitales femeninos, resultó que las mujeres de Bobolaise utilizaban diversas sustancias para realizar el placer sexual de los hombres, tanto para mantener la relación como para proteger los regalos y el dinero que muchas mujeres necesitaban para sobrevivir y para sus hijos. La CF/MGF era vista como una obligación sociocultural, necesaria para lograr una condición social respetable. Otras formas de modificación genital eran consideradas un medio de satisfacer las necesidades sexuales del hombre, aunque apretar la vagina para ocultar la experiencia sexual también era una manera de demostrar respetabilidad. En general, se determinó que las personas de Bobolaise tenían sus propias perspectivas sobre todas las formas de modificación genital femenina discutidas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) is one of the most prevalent harmful cultural practices against women and girls in many African countries. We identified reasons for the failure of the legal approach to stop FGC practice in the Ejagham region Southwest of Cameroon through multi-locale ethnographic fieldwork. The reasons revolve around the belief that FGM is useful for the reduction of sexual immorality among women, removal of sexual ambiguity and improving genital esthetics, a feministic symbol and cultural identity, and the government's socio-economic neglect of the Ejagham communities; the basis for resistance. Non-legal approaches involving community development and women empowerment have been proposed for fighting FGC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Egypt is one of three countries where half of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) victims live, despite its ban. To inform policy on the awareness of this ban and the impact of other interventions, this study sought to assess FGM/C-related knowledge, perceptions, and determinants of disagreement with FGM/C and circumcision of future daughters among university students. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a self-administered questionnaire in a random sample of 502 male and female students in Menoufia University between September and December 2017. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed. Results: Students were 21.0 ± 1.6 years old; 270 (54.0%) were males, 291 (58.0%) were non-medical students, and 292 (58.2%) were rural residents. 204 (46.7%) students were not aware of the ban and their main source of information about FGM/C was educational curricula or health education sessions (162, 37.0%). Only 95 (19.0%) students had good knowledge about FGM/C. 217 (43.3%) students were neutral towards discontinuing FGM/C. 280 (56.2%) students disagreed with FGM/C. 296 (59.3%) students disagreed with circumcision of their future daughters; independent determinants of this outcome were awareness of the ban (ORa = 1.9) and disagreement with: FGM/C preserves females' virginity (ORa = 5.0), has religious basis (ORa = 3.8), makes females happier in marriage (ORa = 3.5), enhances females' hygiene (ORa = 2.1). Conclusions: Knowledge about FGM/C and its ban is low, even in this educated population. FGM/C is still misperceived as a religious percept. Maximizing the utilization of health education and curricula might help increase anti-FGM/C attitudes among university students with neutral perceptions and initiate the much-needed momentum for elimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key content In the UK, female genital mutilation ( FGM) has been outlawed since 1985, yet the practice continues. The multiplicity of reasons given for the practice include tradition, religion and preservation of virginity., The procedure can lead to numerous and deleterious physical, psychological and sexual effects., Legislating against FGM provides an official platform to back up the position of activists and community members that do not wish to continue with the practice., However, the legislative developments, including mandatory recording and reporting of FGM cases, need to go hand in hand with the training of healthcare professionals, improving health and social service provisions, robust political commitment and education and empowerment of FGM-practising communities., Learning objectives To define FGM, to understand the practice, the procedure and its consequences., To examine the legislative development in the UK., To look at how we can improve the services that care for women at risk or who have undergone FGM., Ethical issues Female genital cosmetic surgery., Mandatory reporting of FGM., Gender inequalities., Cultural/racial sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the international community has recently promoted legislation as an important reform strategy for ending female genital cutting ( FGC), there exist divergent views on its potential effects. Supporters argue that legal prohibition of FGC has a general deterrent effect, while others argue legislation can be perceived as coercive, and derail local efforts to end the practice. This study examines the range of responses observed in rural Senegal, where a 1999 anti- FGC law was imposed on communities in which the practice was being actively contested and targeted for elimination. Drawing on data from a mixed-methods study, we analyze responses in relation to two leading theories on social regulation, the law and economics and law and society paradigms, which make divergent predictions on the interplay between social norms and legal norms. Among supporters of FGC, legal norms ran counter to social norms, and did little to deter the practice, and in some instances incited reactance or drove the practice underground. Conversely, where FGC was being contested, legislation served to strengthen the stance of those contemplating or favoring abandonment. We conclude that legislation can complement other reform strategies by creating an 'enabling environment' that supports those who have or wish to abandon FGC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers the author's insights on the application of state obligations in Utrecht, Netherlands regarding the prevention of female genital mutilation (FGM) to be applied through the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The author says that FGM is a circumcision practice which removes or cuts the clitoris of women and is done either in infant, puberty, or pregnancy stage to represent the transition to another life stage. He mentions that to prevent the FGM practice, the third article of ECHR can be applied which focuses on the right to protect the inhuman or degrading treatment of individuals. Moreover, he adds that the eighth article of ECHR is also applicable because it centers on child abuse and violation of physical integrity and sexual anatomy.

Background: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is all practices involving cutting, alteration or injury to the female genitalia for non-medical reasons. It is a form of violence against women and children, with no benefits and many harms. In 2014, the UK Government committed to working to eliminate FGM. Steps taken towards this aim included creation of educational and safeguarding resources for professionals, and legislative changes including a mandatory reporting duty for professionals in England and Wales (where if a girl under 18 discloses or is found on examination to have FGM then the professional is mandated to report this to the police), and an FGM Enhanced Dataset applicable to NHS organisations in England requiring the submission of personal data about women and girls who have had FGM to NHS Digital. To date, compliance with dataset returns from primary care services have been low. This report describes using patient and public involvement (PPI) to identify research and service priorities to support communities affected by FGM. Methods: We held a series of PPI events (4 focus groups, and a multi-agency seminar) in 2015–2016, following the introduction of these legislative changes, speaking to community members, and professionals involved in their care. We asked participants to consider what they identified as research, knowledge and service priorities to support communities affected by FGM. Results: The impact of these legislative and reporting requirements on the trust needed for community members to seek to consult health services was identified as important for further research. Priorities for service development were holistic services, that met a woman’s needs throughout her lifecourse. Participants emphasised the importance of understanding how to listen, involve and utilise community voices in developing education for professionals, designing services, and developing policy. Conclusions: There was a desire for change to develop from within affected communities; any learning and resources need to be co-created and constructed in such a way that they can be effectively shared between women, communities, and professionals. Questions remain about how to define community consultation, how to recognise when it was adequate, and how to hear beyond community activists to hear a wider range of voices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]