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In this document, available literature is identified and reviewed in order to determine whether there are substantiated cognitive effects associated with the use of games in the mathematics classroom. Three criteria were used for selection of the literature: the treatment was identified as a game; cognitive measures were obtained; and the dependent variables included mathematical variables. The paper observes that the study of games as an instruction-learning process in mathematics has so far been neither thorough nor systematic and no definite conclusions can be made about the use of games in teaching mathematics. (MP)

This paper identifies four common dilemmas that educators face across the globe: (1) meeting political demands for increased effectiveness and productivity; (2) providing education in ways that are consistent with the realities of diversity; (3) maintaining a focus on moral and ethical practice; and (4) determining the proper balance between individual rights and collective social order. The paper considers how effective educational leadership might be of value in addressing these issues. It presents the concept of "spiritual leadership," in which the administrator sees with the "two eyes" of management and leadership. Spiritual leadership might be allowed to flourish in educational settings through engaging in reflection on one's practice, pursuing academic learning, and developing a personal belief platform. The potential of mentoring as a useful strategy for facilitating spiritual leadership is highlighted. (LMI)

A discussion of whether teaching is a science, an art, or both, and the extent to which it is either and why, is presented in this paper. Teaching-as-a-science (TAS) and teaching-as-an-art (TAA) are not specific teaching methods but rather two different ways to find teaching methods. Whether students learn as a result of the teacher's scientific or artistic attitude rather than how students learn is the focus of the discussion. The paper offers analyses of the following: the terms "art" and "science" in language; whether TAA and TAS are desirable; definitions of teaching; definitions of art and science; TAA and TAS compared; the logic of science; the role of rules (rules make science, but rules may be subject to creative redesign by the artist); and the politics of TAA and TAS. Whether teaching is an art or a science depends on the definition of teaching adopted and how the goals of teaching are perceived. (SM)

Given state activism in education reform during the 1980s, a major concern in the development of education policy is whether reform states have increased their financial support for education in order to achieve desired objectives. This paper describes findings of a study that explored the distributive nature of state and local policy choices in education through comparative analyses of their long-term fiscal effort for three distinctive public services--welfare, highways, and police. The study built upon the unitary model of taxation and expenditure policies. The findings imply that policy shifts may have led to changes in educational expenditure patterns. Providing the general structures of state-level distributive effects, multilevel analyses suggest that the first wave of state reform affected not only fiscal effort for education but also distributive tendencies in education expenditures. While state reform appeared to increase the level of resources allocated to public education versus other social services, the distributive effects of state education reform tend to vary among states with different racial compositions. Redistributive tendencies in education expenditures tend to be accompanied by a low level of fiscal effort for education. In addition, developmental versus redistributive tendencies in education expenditures tend to be highly conflicting. One figure, 5 tables, and 13 endnotes are included. (Contains 36 references.) (LMI)

This paper presents findings of a study that examined the "health" of the superintendency as perceived by superintendents in two states. Questionnaires sent to 307 Illinois superintendents elicited 227 responses, a 74 percent response rate, and questionnaires sent to 137 Massachusetts principals yielded 104 responses, a 76 percent response rate. Superintendents in both states expressed satisfaction with their salaries and relationships with the community. Both groups of superintendents agreed that the board tended to micromanage the school district and that the job adversely affected their family lives. However, the percentage of Massachusetts superintendents expressing adverse effects on their physical and mental health was much higher. A greater percentage of Massachusetts superintendents than Illinois superintendents described their relationships with school boards in negative terms. The data show that Massachusetts superintendents had little input into their contracts, were not initially hired for the maximum number of years allowed by law, and were not selected unanimously by their boards. Massachusetts superintendents were also older and from larger school districts than were their Illinois counterparts. (LMI)

This paper provides a brief historical outline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), its definition, its behavioral characteristics, and a guide to creating successful learning environments for these students. Diagnostic criteria for ADHD are listed and discussed, and incidence figures of 3 to 5 percent of all school-age children are cited. The paper briefly describes the following typical characteristics of students with ADHD: short attention spans and distractibility, impulsivity, free flight of ideas, poor organizational skills, insatiability, hyperactivity, social immaturity, performance inconsistency, inflexibility, mood swings, and poor short-term memory. Disorders that may mimic the characteristics of ADHD are identified, including anxiety disorders, conduct disorders, learning disabilities, depression, manic-depressive illness, and seasonal affective disorder. The controversy over the use of medications to treat ADHD is addressed. A section on ways to make school successful for students with attention deficits covers the importance of being knowledgeable about symptoms and attitudes surrounding ADHD, characteristics of successful teachers, the classroom environment, modifying the curriculum, ways to help students listen and attend, the need to provide students with frequent breaks, and homework. (Contains 17 references.) (DB)

With the current interest and allocation of resources accorded service learning comes a growing need to clarify the varied ideological perspectives on school and society that underline service learning activities and programs. Drawing on an evaluation of Stanford's Service Learning 2000 project and on a rhetorical analysis of policy talk on service learning, this paper proposes a conceptual scheme that highlights these complexities. It seeks to clarify the ideological, political, and social goals and assumptions embedded in the policy and practice of service learning. Two examples of service learning projects funded in part by the Stanford Service Learning 2000 minigrants program are highlighted. Data were obtained from interviews with and surveys of teachers and students, classroom observations, and project reports submitted by the teachers. The first project stressed charity and the cultivation of civic duty and altruism among the students. The second project focused on transformative education, using systemic and critical analysis to bring about social change. Findings distinguish among the moral, political, and pedagogical goals that motivate supporters of service learning--the moral domain, the political domain, and the pedagogical domain. Although charity is an admirable goal, educators must ask the questions "who and for what?" By focusing on charity rather than change, by emphasizing noncontroversial issues, and by framing controversial issues in noncontroversial ways, educators forego many opportunities for meaningful, reflective analysis and transformative experiences. By linking social analysis and action, service learning frameworks can facilitate powerful educational experiences. (LMI)

In education, women are outnumbered by men four to one at the administrative level. This paper presents findings of a study that sought to determine the association between advanced degrees in educational administration and the careers of those holding such degrees. Data were obtained from questionnaires that were mailed to a total of 210 former educational administration graduates who received degrees from a midwestern research university during 1985-90. The sample included 122 graduates at the master's level, 56 at the advanced certificate level, and 32 at the doctoral level. A total of 170 responses were received, an 83 percent response rate. Findings demonstrate an increase in the number of women pursuing administrative careers and greater involvement of women in educational administration preparatory programs. Despite their academic credentials, however, they struggle to achieve administrative positions, particularly those of superintendent, associate/assistant superintendent, and secondary school principal. More so than for men, graduate work in educational administration is essential for the advancement of women in school leadership. It is recommended that universities and other preparatory institutions: (1) design and offer graduate programs that reflect the needs of women and minority leaders; (2) intensify recruitment efforts of women and minorities into such programs; (3) strengthen or establish a mentor system; and (4) provide job enrichment experiences for women. Additionally, women need to develop their own support networks. Two figures are included. (LMI)

Both quantitative and qualitative procedures were used to analyze 39 responses to a questionnaire asking cooperating teachers, university preservice teachers, and public school administrators to identify problem areas of the teacher education field experience and to suggest strategies for improvements. The six field experience components which were considered to be most in need of revision included assignments, placement of university student with cooperating teacher, involvement of administrators, classroom planning by university students, conferencing with university supervisor, and orientation. The paper concluded that cooperating teachers desire to be more involved in the classroom planning of student teachers and to have more input in the assignments given to university students. There was a call for participation of the principal in the field experience of the preservice teacher. (JDD)

This paper presents a functional approach to assessment and associated program development for individuals with severe disabilities, with emphasis on informal strategies that target beginning communicative levels. In the first section, form, function, and context (three components of any communicative act) are defined and described. Three assessment strategies which scrutinize each of these components are then surveyed--these include interviews, observations, and analogues (in which a variety of variables are systematically manipulated to observe effects on communicative performance). The third section delineates the goals associated with form, function, and context which facilitate decision making. Concerns about utilization and dissemination of innovative assessment practices are addressed in the fourth section, including: (1) what is known about communication assessment practices for this population; (2) methods of disseminating the knowledge base to practitioners; (3) the role of "best practices" in dissemination and utilization; and (4) prioritization of assessment practices. Attachments include examples of communication interviews, an observational recording protocol, structured protocols for evoking specific communicative functions, and an intuitive analysis of variables relevant to teaching social greetings. (Lists 52 references and 13 additional resources.) (Author/DB)

Case studies have emerged as a viable tool for exposing novice teachers to mundane and unique situations that might be encountered in the classroom. This paper discusses the utilization of video taped case studies as a valid method for assessing the reactions and perceptions of preservice teachers to an introductory field observation course. Students observed unrehearsed video taped segments of classroom interactions from elementary and secondary classrooms and were asked to describe significant events. In addition, they were asked to make judgments regarding the teacher's behavior and interaction with the pupils. This process is utilized not only as an instructional tool but also as a vehicle for assessing the students observational skills. Students report that assessment of their skills via the video cases provides them with a more realistic opportunity to implement the experiences, knowledge, and skills gained throughout the semester. Several distinct topics emerged as this project was developed and include: content of the video segments, the process of taking a video examination, technical aspects of technology and their effects on learning, evaluation and financial and collegial support. (Author/LL)

Findings from a historical case study that analyzed a school board decision making process during a crisis situation are presented in this paper. Criminal allegations made against the superintendent of a midwestern school system in 1984 created a crisis for the board of education. The superintendent of schools was charged with third degree sexual assault on a 17-year-old female student. The board made a series of 11 decisions as the case unfolded. Methodology involved content analysis of 42 public documents and 10 oral testimony transcripts. Ten factors and issues are identified as factors in the decisionmaking process, and the constraints model of policymaking processes is used to understand the cognitive, affiliative, and egocentric constraints affecting the board's decisions. Three recommendations about board crisis decision making highlight the need for: (1) board member training in crisis decision making; (2) further exploration of the constraints model's applicability to such decision making; and (3) further study of personal relationships, access to information, and student welfare. Other suggestions are that boards seek more than one legal opinion and develop policies for situations of sexual harassment and continuing employment in cases of criminal charges. Four predictions about board decision making in crisis are also included. (16 references) (LMI)

In response to criticism of methods courses, this paper takes the position that the development of a body of knowledge concerning professional practices is central to the education of professional teachers. Focusing on the complexity of the teaching situation, a discussion is presented on the importance of mastering methods and models of teaching. Three basic dimensions of the action-situation relationships facing the teacher in the multidimensional, immediate, and unpredictable classroom are considered: (1) a goal state or end product to be achieved, (2) a problem space or set of conditions and resources available to research the goal state, and (3) the operations involved in assembling and using available resources. It is pointed out that teachers must organize groups of students, establish rules and procedures, elicit students' cooperation in classroom activities, and sustain order for designated blocks of time across several months. Instructional methods offer a way to bring some order to this complex situation. (JD)

The case under study was a staff development program devoted to methods for instructional grouping called "cooperative learning." In this case study, the rhetoric of cooperative learning for mainstreaming was tested by examining the words and actions of teachers and administrators for congruence with rhetorical devices. Three kinds of information were investigated: (1) responses to a survey of over 50 teachers and administrators who participated in programs promoting cooperative learning methods for mainstreaming; (2) textual artifacts of those programs for inservice teacher education; and (3) group interviews with participants. Both documentary and interview data were analyzed in reference to three rhetorical devices: topics of argument, types of commonplace, and types of figures of speech. These analyses portray specific discursive strategies chosen by teacher educators in reference to informants' accounts of the rhetorical success of these strategies in creating and maintaining support among teachers and students for mainstreaming and cooperative learning. The paper endeavors to show, through rhetorical analysis, the degree to which this program of educational reform succeeded in its goal of changing teachers' beliefs and practices. (JD)

This paper is further subtitled "Presentations of integrated units of instruction by interdisciplinary teams of pre-service teacher education students showcasing student-developed curriculum integration ideas." The units include the following: "Get Your Kicks on Route 66" (integrating Family and Consumer Sciences, Business, and Industrial Technology); "Depressionism" (integrating Business, English Literature, and American History); "Integrating Industrialization into the Future" (integrating English, Family and Consumer Sciences, History, and Business); "Expanding Our Horizons" (integrating Business/Accounting, History, and English); "Petroleum Refined" (integrating Business/Consumer/Sales, Social Studies, English, and Industrial Technology); "The Boom Years: Consumerism in American Society 1950-1960" (integrating Sociology, Business, History, and English); "Curriculum Integration of Cause & Effect" (integrating Mathematics, Business, Social Studies, and Science); "International Trade" (integrating Economics, History, and Business Law); "The Automobile: The Tie That Binds Society" (integrating History/Social Studies, English, Economics/Business, and Industrial Technology/Automotives); and "An Integrated Study of American Industrialization" (integrating Business, Family Living, History, and Literature/Composition). For each presentation, there is information on presenters, subjects integrated, objectives, rationale, resources needed, unit description and activities, evaluation, and references. (SM)

The arts are basic educational processes that involve students with different abilities and from differing age groups in sensory perception. This perception, augmented by the use of art compositions, establishes a critical dialogue between the medium and the viewer. What one views, sees, and observes in an art piece serves to create a relationship, much like that between reader and text. With visual arts, the processes of receiving conceptual images and later forming reactions to such images are inexorably bound to higher order thinking skills and numerous aspects of creativity. Learners in current educational settings must be provided with possibilities to view, analyze, and respond to the arts. Learners should have a means through which they may look, feel, and listen to artwork. This realization would relate the curriculum to real life learning and afford the students greater opportunities for academic, social, and personal achievement. Agreement has recently been reached on the importance of arts education and the necessity to include the arts in state and federal education goals. Suggestions are offered for integrating the visual arts into the academic curriculum under the headings: personal education goals and instruction and research. Suggestions for classroom activities are given in the following categories: illustrations in children's literature; children's art; calendars; paintings and photographs; billboards, advertisements, and bumper stickers; and computer technology. (NAV)

A panel of student teachers reviewed information on perceived student teaching needs prior to and following special education student teaching experiences, focusing on needs regarding communication with the cooperating teacher. The panel created several lists of positive verbal and written supports for the special education student teacher. Uses of nonverbal communication were also reviewed. Four general techniques for enhancing the relationship between the student teacher and the cooperating teacher were identified: (1) quality time with the cooperating teacher; (2) a system of effective dialogue; (3) a change of self in the student teaching role; and (4) becoming aware of others with consideration of their needs. Lists of suggested positive words and phrases are attached. (DB)

This report describes two studies prompted by research on rates of research use and attitudes toward research among preservice and inservice teachers enrolled in graduate programs in teacher education. The first study asked prospective and inservice teachers to rate the importance of various research skills and to provide a verbal exposition that justified their assigned ratings. In a follow-up study, an opportunity was created for inservice and preservice teachers to share their perspectives and opinions on the importance, relevance, and application of research skills and knowledge to teaching. The initial study included 167 students at various points of their preservice and inservice graduate teacher education programs; most were in a Master of Arts in Teaching program. The follow-up study involved nine preservice and three inservice discussion groups. For the initial study, a 3-part survey was developed that investigated participants' personal research skills and experiences, perceived advantages and disadvantages of research training, and descriptions of actual research experiences. Findings indicated that the most important reasons given for learning research skills was the ability to use the library and the ability to critically analyze professional literature. The least important reasons selected were publication of research findings in professional literature and knowledge of how to compute and interpret intermediate or advanced statistics. Follow-up study results were similar. Most subjects viewed research as a source for current information related to teaching practices and as a way of dealing with practical, day-to-day classroom issues. (Contains 23 references.) (NAV)

The purpose of this study was twofold: first, to investigate new teachers' perceptions of needs for multicultural education in teacher preparation programs; and second, to better understand the meanings new teachers give to the term multiculturalism. Interviews conducted with nine practicing teachers, recent university graduates, focused on their recommendations for teacher education, their definitions of the term multiculturalism, and their rankings of a series of goals based on a typology of approaches to multicultural education. Themes in responses and similarities and differences between teachers' views and views explicated in the literature on multicultural education were sought. Teachers' recommendations included references to: course work in multicultural content, knowledge construction, and pedagogy; field experiences; and qualifications and characteristics of teacher education faculty. Teachers' definitions of multiculturalism included involving students of all backgrounds and understanding perspectives of different groups. Most of the teachers (five of nine) ranked the goal "teach human relations and social harmony" highest. The goal most frequently ranked last was "teach students to adapt to the norms of the dominant culture." The report concludes with implications for future practice and research. (Contains 27 references.) (Author/LL)

New teachers entering classrooms must have training and skills to merge today's technologies into learning activities and strategies that will stimulate and maintain student interest. Colleges of education must provide modeling of new and advanced technologies by professors and "hands-on" opportunities for students to become skilled in using technological hardware and software. Suggested elements of a successful teacher preparation program are: (1) an electronic classroom in which the professor can control from one central podium a computer-driven interactive communication system to create, store, transmit, and retrieve textual, graphic, audio, and video information or, should the cost of such a classroom be prohibitive, portable teaching and learning stations on roll carts, which may include a computer, videotape player, videodisc player, video projector or LCD viewer, CD-ROM drive, SyQuest drive, etc.; (2) a multimedia development and production laboratory for faculty and students to gain "hands-on" experience; (3) a distance learning center that incorporates telecommunications to bring instruction to remote locations; and (4) a program to design, plan, and locally produce instructional video segments. (LL)

This short work lists 12 needs and recommendations for the future of school counseling. The list is as follows: (1) Need for a developmental curriculum of counseling; (2) Need for professional development for experienced counselors; (3) Need for counselors to practice effective program development, management, accountability, research, and evaluation skills; (4) Need for administrators to understand the counselor's role today and in the future; (5) Need for counselors to understand and respond to the impact of multiculturalism; (6) Need for counselors to respond to the impact of societal issues on students, their families, and the community; (7) Need for counselors to know family systems and intervention strategies; (8) Need for referral networks for students with complex needs; (9) Need for supervisors of school counselors; (10) There is a shortage of competent school counselors; (11) Need for counselor educators with experience in school counseling; and (12) Need for state level leadership to assume responsibility for supporting and upgrading school counseling programs in each state. (Contains 37 references.) (RJM)

This preliminary study was conducted to examine indigenous classroom innovation, defined as any instructional, curricular, or other change a teacher reported making in the current year or in recent years. Such innovations were described in interviews with 11 teachers in three diverse schools settings, who either created the innovations or introduced them into their classrooms. Sixty-one innovations were described and have been categorized as follows: (1) instructional (a new way of presenting or activating curricular content); (2) curricular (emphasizes some new substantive skill or content); (3) governance (new classroom or group management techniques); (4) relational (change to affect socio-emotional or work relations); (5) motivational, emotional, attentional (any new activity designed to energize learning); and (6) imposed (new curricular, instructional, or other approach that has come down from above by policy). Sources of innovative ideas, their educational impact, effective innovations, and dimensions of the qualities of innovation are presented. Narrative descriptions of innovations from five teachers considered particularly effective are included. (LL)

This paper describes a program for beginning teachers in rural areas offered by Eastern Illinois University. The primary goal of the program is to assist beginning teachers in becoming independent decision makers in the classroom by providing survival skills and initial support and gradually introducing means for continuing professional growth. An advisory committee of representatives from the university faculty, local school districts, and area educational service units was established to guide the development of the program and to recommend future actions. The services provided for beginning teachers include a monthly seminar series offered at three regional sites and individualized, nonevaluative classroom visits by the coordinator of the program. The seminars focused on the following topics in sequence: (1) appropriate techniques for conducting parent conferences; (2) effective teaching practices; (3) self-evaluations of the teachers' behaviors; (4) techniques for classroom behavior management; (5) stress management; (6) individualized instruction in the classroom; and (7) professional growth. Individualized classroom visits were available to observe whatever the teacher requested and to offer feedback on questions or concerns the teacher might have. Problems with the program included excessive travel time required for the coordinator and the reluctance of beginning teachers to participate in the program after a stressful day in the classroom. Other options for assisting beginning teachers are mentor teacher programs and computerized networks. (KS)

An evaluation is presented of a clinical supervision training course, focusing on the extent to which interaction occurs between teachers and supervisors for the improvement of instruction. Clinical supervision is presented in the course as a repeating cycle of phases: preconference, lesson observation, analysis of the lesson observation, postconference, and the recycle of phases 1-4 for improvement. Definitional techniques of clinical supervision presented in the sessions include: (1) identifying the teacher's concerns about instruction; (2) translating teacher concerns into observable behaviors; (3) identifying procedures for improving the teacher's instruction; (4) assisting the teacher in setting self-improvement goals; (5) providing feedback using objective observational data; (6) eliciting teacher's inferences, opinions, and feelings; and (7) encouraging the teacher to consider alternative lesson objectives and methods. A description is given of the research design and methodology used to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program, as well as an analysis of the types of impact the clinical supervision course had on 20 novice supervisors as they interacted with their clients during actual school-site and field-based teaching experiences. (JD)

Use of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) "Basic Stuff" (1981) series (which includes six texts explaining each concept and three texts illustrating their use in the elementary, middle, and secondary schools) is recommended for physical education teacher preparation programs. A study was undertaken to compare classes taught with a "Basic Stuff" approach to those taught with a traditional skill orientation. Two college beginning level volleyball classes and two high-ability swimming conditioning classes were taught, one class in each activity using "Basic Stuff" physiology and kinesiology, and one class in each activity using skill orientation. Following instruction, the "Basic Stuff" classes were found to have significantly more knowledge in skill analysis, movement analysis, technique, and strategy, and to have equal knowledge of rules compared to skill oriented classes. No significant difference was found between classes in skill development or in learning of a novel skill. However, a significant difference was found in a repeat test of the novel skill 2 days following exposure. (JD)

The purpose of this paper was to examine the problems of and demands on female administrators as they make the transition from the elementary to the secondary school principalship where more policy-setting is involved. Two case studies are presented of women principals making the transition within large city school systems. The subjects were observed for twelve full school days throughout the academic year as they conducted their daily business. After a detailed discussion of some of the obstacles they overcame, the paper concludes that a study of additional female principals over the whole school year may provide a context for interpreting the findings of normative research on larger samples of female managers. (Author/LD)

The impact of the Progressive Movement of 1890-1935 on social, political, economic, and educational developments is reviewed, especially as it relates to parents of handicapped children. The paper notes how parents of the handicapped have evolved from being suspected of causing their child's handicap to becoming partners with professionals in treatment, and how they have made that transformation largely through their own individual and collective efforts. The paper describes the aims and objectives of: (1) the National Congress of Mothers; (2) parent education and child study; (3) social reformers; and (4) educational reformers. (Includes 16 endnotes.) (JDD)

The paper describes a study of the scope of geography achievement tests and the social studies components of national achievement tests. The research examined whether the tests' items were (1) directed primarily toward testing knowledge at the recall/memory level, and (2) comprehensive in their treatment of the discipline. Ten tests were analyzed, including the Hollingsworth-Sanders Geography Test, Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS, Form 6, Social Studies), Michigan Elementary Geography Test, and NCGE Intermediate Level Geography Test (Draft 2, Parts I, II, III). Using Bloom's Taxonomy, items were classified by cognitive level as testing knowledge (memory), comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. All classifications except knowledge (memory) were considered to be of a high cognitive level. Content was categorized as geographic skills, human geography, physical geography, or miscellaneous. Results showed that the majority of tests provided a balance between lower and higher cognitive questions. However, the Hollingsworth-Sanders contained no higher order questions and the ITBS contained no recall/memory items. Most tests emphasized interpretation of maps, graphs, and charts. Only three tests included questions from 60% or more of the content categories included in the analysis. The NCGE Intermediate Geography Test contained the most even spread of test items across content categories. (Author/AV)

An emphasis needs to be placed on the use and development of critical thinking skills at the elementary, secondary, and higher education levels. Critical learning that fosters active student participation, goal setting, and probing into concerns through dialogue with other students and the teacher is particularly needed to help students learn to analyze problems, deal with ethical considerations, see the broad picture, and still work within the confines of a specific task. Educators must strive to develop self-learning skills of every student, whether it be reading, speaking, writing, or listening. This paper presents a proposed model for teacher education or pattern which creatively integrates cultural/liberal arts study, specific, technical content knowledge, and professional education preparation. Teaching and learning should deal with problem solving so that relationships and issues can be analyzed to illuminate reality. With such understanding, students can enter into life with the confidence and skills necessary for them to become participative and citizens. (CB)

Americans tend to value bigger as better. Conventional wisdom over the years has dictated that "too small" schools and school districts could not provide sufficient educational opportunities. Since 1930, the number of school districts has shrunk from 128,000 to less than 16,000. As districts consolidate, parents feel distant from schools and powerless to affect policy. At the same time, Gene Glass's definitive work stresses the learning benefits of smaller classes. This paper reviews current thinking on district, school, and class size as they affect learning in the classroom. A table summarizes correlations between size and various other factors, including state public school enrollments, minority, student concentrations, SAT and ACT scores, state poverty levels, per pupil expenditure averages, teacher salaries, and Catholic school enrollments. Findings show that smaller is likely to be better. However, political and economic influences will probably prevent change based on size considerations. Robert Slater's research expands the appropriate class size question by relating class size to structural differentiation and school culture. The nature of instruction must also be considered. To achieve appropriate instruction, the group's size and composition must fit the instructional situation. A diagnostic-prescriptive model (like Bloom's mastery learning) with variable size based on instructional need seems logical. Also, home schooled children's superior test scores corroborate the smaller-is-better findings. People seem to learn, change, and grow in situations where they have some control, some personal influence, and some efficacy. (15 references) (MLH)

This paper describes the development and use of language training procedures, referred to as cues-pause-point procedures, that rely on behavioral principles and simple and natural teaching procedures and that are exhibited in many normal parent-child or teacher-student verbal interactions. The procedures have been effective in teaching severely language deficient and language-disordered individuals with a wide variety of speech problems, including immediate and delayed echolalia, perseverative or tangential speech, nonsensical or unrelated speech, and virtually no speech. The procedures teach individuals to provide functional verbal responses to trained verbal input (i.e., to say "fine" when asked how are you); they also provide an interactive communication strategy that increases the likelihood of appropriate responses to untrained or novel verbalizations. The main goal is to produce the appropriate verbal response quickly so that the major training focus can be on maintaining it through a series of fading steps. A case study is presented of a severely mentally handicapped boy who was trained to respond to five stimulus-response pairs in a particular setting and was able to generalize his skill to other settings and to maintain his new communicative strategy. (JDD)

The staff development model described in this paper involves collaborative planning in which the teachers are involved, while also providing a mechanism to assist participants to identify their inservice needs. The model consists of three major components: (1) the preliminary input of a selected committee which produces a needs assessment survey; (2) the distribution of the survey to all personnel; and (3) a summary of responses to the survey which makes it possible to construct a useful and relevant staff development plan. Personnel from the Institute for Educational Research, which is a non-profit consortium of 125 school districts in Illinois, work actively with the school personnel in all phases of the development of the inservice program. The model is individualized for each school setting and sensitive to the particular needs of each school district. (JD)

Issues in the current discussions surrounding educational choice are discussed in this paper, which examines several underlying assumptions through an analysis of selected metaphorical constructs in a selective review of the choice literature. A conclusion is that the rhetorical power of choice is based on imprecise, limited, and ambiguous metaphors for excellence, effectiveness, science, expertise, productivity, selection, and finally, choice itself. The power of choice is derived from its mythological status. Elevating stories through metaphorical transformations to the level of myth obscures reality and diverts attention from the difficult act of true change. Given the realities of practical implementation, choice systems cannot function as the in-use metaphors and their advocates imply. (50 references) (LMI)

The paper presents a discussion of human mental processes as they relate to learning disabilities. Pathognomonic symptoms associated with disturbances to brain areas or functional systems are discussed, as well as treatment procedures. This brain behavior relationship is offered as a basis for a classification system that is seen to more clearly define attention and learning disabilities and to afford more precise and reliable strategies for diagnosis and treatment. Ninety-two symptoms are grouped in a screening checklist format for the areas of attention, perception, mood, memory, and movement. A multidisciplinary treatment approach involving medicine, neuropsychology, and education is recommended. (Author/DB)

This paper examines the identification of children with learning disabilities who are at risk for problems in the social domain. Based on sociometric measures, teacher rating scales, and measures administered to the children, it is found that children with learning disabilities may have problems related to rejection or related to neglect, and that these reflect different social behaviors and call for different interventions. Research related to learning-disabled children's social skills is reviewed. A five-step model is used to analyze how children process social information, focusing on encoding, mental representation and interpretation, the response search process, the response decision process, and enactment. For each step of the model, methods for assessing the social skill are suggested. It is concluded that learning disabled students differ from achieving children in their attitudes toward themselves and others' attitudes toward them; in both cases the attitudes are more negative but the source of these attitudes is not known. Learning-disabled children are less skillful than achieving classmates on measures of social cognition, role-taking, and communicative competence. They are highly motivated to avoid failure and public confirmation of their incompetence and to gain peer approval. (Approximately 80 references) (JDD)

This study investigated inservice teachers' perceptions of the importance for instructional supervisors to possess content knowledge in the content areas that they supervise. Questionnaires were completed by 120 teachers from two elementary, one middle, and one high school, and follow-up interviews were conducted with 20 respondents. Teachers strongly supported the premise that supervisors should be content specialists in the content areas they observe. Out of six supervisory services, teachers ranked feedback about the effectiveness of instruction in relation to content as the most important service. Teachers felt that supervisors with content knowledge gave improved help and feedback, knew what instructional strategies to suggest based on content, gave fairer evaluations of a teacher's classroom performance, had up-to-date knowledge of trends and issues in the content area, and elicited greater respect from teachers, and supported the best interest of the content area when programmatic changes are made and funds are allocated. Teachers' perceptions changed according to the instructional supervision method used (nominal, prescriptive, or reflective). Multi-subject certificated teachers had a higher percentage of agreement with supervisors' need for content knowledge than did single-subject certificated teachers. Experienced teachers desired instructional supervisors' content knowledge more than novice teachers. Implications for teacher education and supervisory practice are outlined. The supervision questionnaire and an interview protocol are appended. (Contains 19 references.) (JDD)

Using ethnographic data, this study explores the behavior of urban principals at work. The event analysis summary (appended) was based on Mintzberg's classification of on-the-job characteristics and role behavior and then modified to reflect the data obtained. "Key incidents" rather than case studies serve as the basis for organizing descriptive analysis. The ethnographic method is revealed to provide insights into the underlying relationships of surface events when a subject's presentation of self ceases to become a performance, when someone breaks a norm and others react, or when a portion of the observed structure changes or malfunctions. In the progress of the study, the researchers discovered new dimensions being added to the principal's role as a result of unionization and community group pressure. In addition, the researchers found that the implementation of legislation concerning desegregation and handicapped children, the institution of a mastery learning-based curriculum, and the centralization of school administration have significantly altered the principal's role and behavior. Plans for further research include an analysis of principals' views of their new roles and the skills and increased paperwork required of them. (WD)

Recent trends in composition research indicate that attention has turned away from the parts of the writing product toward the steps involved in the writing process. There are two common threads to this research: (1) writing has a number of distinct stages including prewriting, writing, and editing, and (2) errors are a natural part of learning, and are often an indication of progress and growth, rather than of a mistake that needs to be eradicated. Trends in evaluation of written composition include a return to the use of the writing sample, scored holistically, or for "primary traits" (a system developed for the National Assessment of Educational Progress). Another important trend in teaching writing involves inservice education programs, such as the Bay Area Writing Project, that seek to involve the teachers in writing themselves and thereby aid in their understanding of the writing process. (MKM) Aspect of National Assessment (NAEP) dealt with in this document: Program Description.

Problems associated with combining observations taken from intact classrooms were examined. Clarification of basic entities to be studied was a critical step in research planning. Classroom observers usually study instructional arrangements and other classroom phenomena. The author used activity structure and its component activity segments as the focus for study. An activity segment was defined as a unique time block in a lesson which occured in a fixed physical setting. Segments have instructional forms designed for the accomplishment of specific tasks. Daily activities in a classroom conform with the general type of curricular approach and goals. Activity structures are produced to accomplish certain goals. When observational data is characterized by distributions which are bimodal or have many zeroes or non-occurences, summary with means and standard deviations may result in erroneous conclusions. The author observed 20 fifth-grade math classes from diverse school districts. He determined that combining data within two clusters, highly individualized and whole class programs, provided more meaningful and interpretable results. Researchers and writers need to include background descriptive information about the programs and contexts which they have studied to facilitate sorting of data. (DWH)

Surveys were completed by 469 special education teachers to investigate the relationship of locus of control to teach burnout. Locus of control was found to correlate significantly with four of six dimensions on the Maslach Behavior Inventory. As teachers reported more external orientation, they also reported a greater degree of burnout. No statistically significant correlations were found between burnout and teaching position, grade level taught, type of child taught, level of education, student load, size of district, and marital status. Increasing age was significantly correlated with more frequent feelings of personal accomplishment and negatively correlated with both frequency and intensity dimensions of the emotional exhaustion subscale, and stronger feelings of depersonalization. Males had significantly fewer feelings of personal accomplishment than females and scored higher on both dimensions of the depersonalization scale. Area of college preparation, years of experience, and desire to remain in teaching were also related to burnout. (CL)

The use of punishment and time-out with 54 severely emotionally disturbed and behavior disordered children (7-13 years old) in a residential school and treatment program was examined. Both exclusion (E:TO) and isolation (I:TO) varieties of time-out were applied. In E:TO, the student was placed in a portion of the room not being used or in the hall. In I:TO, the child was placed in a separate room used exclusively for time-out. Used as a last resort, punishment usually meant loss of privilege. Staff coded and weighted inappropriate behavior. Analysis of mean antecedent and subsequent behavior values obtained with the use of punishment, I:TO and E:TO indicated that severity of behaviors increased with both the use of punishment and the two types of time-out. Limitations of a typical program trying to impose strict experimental controls are cited. (CL)

Six practical components of listening comprehension and sources of listening materials are considered. Listening comprehension depends on: (1) the sonic realization or actual physical hearing of language, (2) the segmental/suprasegmental form (phoneme distinction), (3) the musical pitch and rhythm, (4) lexical phrasing, (5) the purpose of the message intended by the speaker, and (6) the actualization of the message in the listener. Sources of good listening material, listed in order of importance, are: the teacher; other speakers of the target language; recordings of radio broadcasts, music, speeches; films and television programs; and commercially-produced language laboratory tapes. The importance of frequently exposing students to the language as it is actually used by fluent speakers is emphasized. The technique of adapting materials from the radio is illustrated by a weather report in German. Fifteen weather reports were recorded, since they are usually in a fixed format, with certain kinds of information in certain locations. Certain words and phrases were deleted from one report to the next, and three of the reports were not transcribed for the students, who were required to provide the basic information about the weather. It is suggested that the same technique can be used for other types of short abridged language material, especially music. Some limitations of commercially-produced tapes are noted. (SW)

School psychologists (N=119) were surveyed regarding current practices in diagnosing children with mental retardation. Results showed a wide range of responses for diagnostic criteria. Substantial discrepancies were found in relative weight given to intelligence and adaptive behavior, IQ cut-offs and ranges, importance of various areas of adaptive behavior, adaptive behavior deficits, and academic performance deficits. The need for standardization of criteria in diagnosing mental retardation is noted, and the likely results of diagnostic variation, less than equal access to special education programs, is also discussed. (Author/CL)

To test three hypotheses concerning fingerspelling's contribution to word recognition, 24 deaf children in three age groups (7-9, 10-12, and 13-15 years) were administered a vocabulary recognition test and a lexical decision task. Subjects' performance was measured by the number of words accurately identified and the response latency. Results did not support the hypotheses. Children recognized more vocabulary in print than in fingerspelling; were more accurate in deciding the lexical status of words presented in print than words presented in fingerspelling; and were more accurate in deciding the lexical status of words that are typically signed in sign language than words that are typically fingerspelled. Results suggested that deaf children organize their recognition of written words around sign language and do not organize their recognition of fingerspelled words around sign language. (CL)

This study assessed the reactions of 39 teacher candidates toward the following components of a general methods course, "Micro-Teaching: Practice in Teaching Techniques": (1) instruction in methods; (2) pre-teaching conferences; (3) laboratory teaching; and (4) post-teaching conferences. The subjects, who were enrolled in two sections of the course, had chosen their fields of specialization in English, mathematics, science, and social studies. An analysis of the responses to the 54-item questionnaire and supervisor rating form supported the following conclusions: (1) the overwhelming majority of the subjects found the four components of the course effective and mutally supportive, although differences were found between students enrolled in the two sections of the course; (2) clarity of goals and relationships between class content and laboratory practice was found to be a problem for some topics in one or another of the two sections; and (3) the data can be interpreted as suggesting that clinical supervision was implemented and generally found to be effective in obtaining laboratory goals of reflective self-analysis. A copy of the questionnaire is appended along with comments from the subjects. (JD)

The survey of all 50 state departments of education (and the District of Columbia examined nondiscriminatory evaluation policy. The examination of state policy documents included both an analysis of regulatory language and implementation procedures. State adherence to Public Law 94-142 Protection in Evaluation Procedures (PEP) and the development of additional state procedures to ensure non-bias in the identification process were also reviewed. Results are presented in tabular form by state for such areas as: statement of nondiscriminatory evaluation intent, preplacement evaluation, evaluation procedures, administration of evaluation instruments in child's native language or communication mode, validity of measure for purpose used, administration by trained personnel, care that test measures ability rather than impaired skills, use of multiple criteria for program eligibility, evaluation by multidisciplinary team, and assessment in all areas related to suspected disability. It is concluded that states are not adequately implementing the provisions of PEP. For example, only 11 states have developed guidelines designed to implement the nondiscriminatory requirement. (DB)

In examining the role and responsibilities of the student teacher supervisor, the following demands, or constraints inherent in the job are discussed: (1) the content, skills, and dispositions students are expected to acquire and strengthen, and the aims and objectives the supervisor wishes to set; (2) the level of mastery and competence the supervisor expects students to attain; (3) the affective quality of supervision, student relationships the supervisor intends to establish and maintain, and the feelings within the students the supervisor intends to engender; (4) assessment, grading, marking or other types of evaluation of students' performance in teacher practice and the amount and type of feedback given to students with respect to their own performance; (5) the characteristics of the teaching, classroom and school situation in which students' teaching practice occurs; and (6) the allocation of time for teaching practice and the whole course. It is pointed out that these demands often conflict with each other and not all of them can be satisfied at the same time. Suggestions are made for further research on student teacher supervisors. (JD)

This study expands a previous longitudinal study. The field experiences of students placed with trained and untrained cooperating teachers were compared by analyzing records of time spent in various classroom activities, planning, and conferencing. Subjects were 35 elementary and secondary education student teachers participating in a 16-week student teaching semester in a rural school district. Seventeen student teachers were placed with trained cooperating teachers; 18 were with untrained cooperating teachers. The subjects kept daily records of the amount of time they spent on observation, full- and small-group teaching, tutoring, and supervisory duties. Taped interviews at mid- and end-of-semester yielded data about lesson planning and conferences with cooperating teachers. Following a brief description of the training program for cooperating teachers, the major activities of the student teachers and data gathered from interviews are discussed. It is noted that elementary teachers were disproportionately represented in the trained sample and thus created an imbalance in the analysis of the comparative effect of grade level. Support was found for the assertion that training for cooperating teachers helps to prepare them for their role. (JD)

This paper discusses ideas for teachers to increase successful comprehension of their questions by language delayed students. Three kinds of questioning techniques are described. Most often used by teachers are "WH-words" (e.g., who, what, how). Noun-verb reversal (e.g., Can you come to the group?) follows in amount of usage. The least used questioning technique is raised intonation (e.g., This one? The pencil?). Failure to respond to any of these question signals does not necessarily mean the student does not know the answer. Question forms often are not adequately coded into sign, and hearing-impaired students may not recognize ordinarily routine strategies signaling questions. Teachers, therefore, should be careful to make question forms comprehensible. A table of "question prompts" provides teachers with alternatives to repeating questions numerous times. Educators can use the prompts to ask questions with brief answers or to encourage discussion. Cognitively challenging questions can be task analyzed by using a four-quadrant language proficiency matrix, in which a line of context intersects with a line of cognition. Classroom teachers often ask context-imbedded, cognitively undemanding questions, while the opposite might be more effective. Teachers should also ask questions at a pace that provides adequate opportunity for students to practice cognitive operations. By setting goals, teachers may be able to help language-impaired children better understand and answer their questions. Four tables and nine references are attached. (TES)

This report examines the opinions of 726 registered voters in 5 small, rural mid-west school districts. The purposes of the study were: (1) to assess citizens' satisfaction with the school districts' programs and services; (2) to indicate strengths and weaknesses in the school districts' programs and services; (3) to identify problems facing the school district; (4) to indicate citizens' willingness to support new programs; and (5) to suggest alternative practices. Registered voters were randomly selected from the five school districts to complete the survey instrument. Data were analyzed with an exploratory factor analysis procedure. The analysis resulted in 12 significant factors, including "liking school,""students' need to work hard," and "the importance of co-curricular activities." The findings suggest that citizens' opinions were similar across school districts. When local citizens are satisfied, they are satisfied about most programs and services. Conversely, when they are dissatisfied, they are dissatisfied about most programs and services. School districts need to continually ascertain public opinion concerning the district and to keep the community informed about available programs and services. In addition, properly polled information can be extremely useful in soliciting public support for school reform efforts. (LP)